Archaeology of the Eurasian Steppes (Arkheologiya Evraziyskikh stepey) (original) (raw)

The article presents the first experience of studying the Muslim monuments in Kasimov with the he... more The article presents the first experience of studying the Muslim monuments in Kasimov with the help of three-dimensional computer graphics. The gravestones of the XVI–XVII centuries from the mausoleums of Shahghali Khan and Afghan-Muhammad Sultan were chosen for the study. Digital documentation of the sites was done according to the standards developed by RSSDA laboratory. At the field phase, photography was carried out using a camera. Models were created from the captured images with the possibility of applying different algorithms to improve their reading. As a result, it was possible to digitally preserve these monuments and virtually reconstruct some of them, verifying and correcting previous researchers. The poor physical condition of the sites was noted. It was possible to reconstruct partially the text of the epitaph, previously difficult for reading, with the help of mathematical surface visualization.

The Institute of Archaeology named after A.Kh. Khalikov of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences has ... more The Institute of Archaeology named after A.Kh. Khalikov of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences has been actively cooperating with scientific centres and universities of the Republic of Uzbekistan since 2022. One of the fields of cooperation is the implementation of the scientific and educational project "Bolgar International Archaeological School". The support of the International Institute for Central Asian Studies (Samarkand, Uzbekistan) and the successful implementation of the scientific and educational project served as the beginning of closer and fruitful cooperation. In March 2023, jointly with Termez State University, an interdisciplinary study of the archaeological heritage site "Palace of Termezshahs", dating from the XI–XII centuries, was carried out. In May-June 2023, archaeological studies were conducted together with the Nukus State Pedagogical Institute named after Ajiniyaz on the Khaivan-Kala fortified settlement of the VII–X centuries. Within the scientific and educational cooperation at Termez State University, specialists of the Institute of Archaeology named after A.Kh. Khalikov RT implemented an additional professional training programme "Geoinformation technologies and non-destructive methods".

The article deals with the project description of the gravestone of the outstanding theologian, o... more The article deals with the project description of the gravestone of the outstanding theologian, orientalist and educator Khusain Faizkhanov (1823–1866), which was installed at the place of his burial in his native village of Safadjai, situated in the Pilna district of the Nizhny Novgorod region. Archival documents and memories of old residents of Kh. Faizkhanov's native village allowed to establish that the gravestone, installed after the scientist's death by his wife Fatima Faizkhanova, was soon destroyed by vandals and the grave itself was abandoned. In 1982, the imam-khatib of the 1st mosque in the village of Safadjai Abdulbari Allyamov made a fence around the grave, and in the autumn of 2000 Mansur Khakimov, a native of Safadjai, installed a new gravestone. On July 7, 2023, a new large monument, specially designed on the initiative of the Spiritual Administration of Muslims of the Russian Federation, was installed at the burial place of Kh. Faizkhanov. All aspects of Kh. Faizkhanov’s activity were taken into account and reflected during working out of its structural elements and their stylistic content. Additionally, the article considers the dating issue of his death. Various data, directly or indirectly reported by sources, are added, the points of view existing in scientific and reference works are analyzed. The proposed dates have discrepancies by one day. Careful attention to textual details in the works of Sh. Marjani allows the author to assert that his information should be recognized as accurate. Based on them, it should be considered that Kh. Faizkhanov died on the night of August 28-29, old style (or September 9-10, new style) 1866, on the night from Sunday of the Gregorian calendar to Monday of the Muslim calendar. The same information allows to consider that the time of birth of Kh. Faizkhanov in 1823 falls on the period not later than March 23.

The article presents the results of archaeological and historiographical studies of Islamic hamma... more The article presents the results of archaeological and historiographical studies of Islamic hammams in the Levant. The cities of the Levant were famous for their hammams belonging to different eras. In their architecture, decorations, and inscriptions, they were among the masterpieces of Islamic art. The hammams of the Levant were among the achievements of the architects of the Levant. Their walls were tiled and the floors were marble. An ingenious engineering system with hot water was used for heating, and the hammams were provided with cold water that flowed from beautifully shaped fountains. People used these hammams not only for bathing, but also for spending time and curing certain illnesses, as well as for some traditional social activities. Islamic civilization inherited public hammams as one of the achievements of previous civilizations. Hammams spread in the cities of the Islamic world, both east and west, as social facilities previously considered alien to Islamic architecture. It was Islamic architects and urban planners who made hammams popular public facilities to meet the vital needs of the local population. Early Muslim Arabs were not familiar with the use of abundant water before the advent of Islam. Mosques, bimaristans (hospitals) or markets played an important role in the religious, social and literary spheres. The establishment of public hammams increased in Islamic cities because of their connection with Islam's provisions for cleanliness and purification, and the inability of the population to build private bathrooms in their homes. Hammams became one of the most common constructions in the Levant, and it was not only a sign of civilization, luxury or wealth, but also an indispensable social necessity. This article is based on Arabic publications which weren’t used by Russian scientists before.

The article deals with the study of stamps on the most numerous imported Byzantine amphoras of th... more The article deals with the study of stamps on the most numerous imported Byzantine amphoras of the "Trebizond" group in the Golden Horde pottery assemblage. Amphoras of this group make 99% of all finds of imported container ceramics on the territory of the Golden Horde and came throughout the entire period of the existence of sedentary life in the state. More than half of all stamps on amphoras of this group are an emblem in the form of a straight grid of various variants. Less often there are epigraphic stamps with monograms or full forms of names or complicated ligatures of anagrams. Byzantine amphoras of the "Trebizond" group with stamps came to the Golden Horde in the first half of the XIV century.

The article deals with the scientific activity of the Soviet archaeologist G.I. Patsevich. The sc... more The article deals with the scientific activity of the Soviet archaeologist G.I. Patsevich. The scientist’s early work biography is associated with the Dzhambul archaeological station, founded by the Department for conservancy areas and protection of ancient monuments under the Council of People’s Commissars of the Kazakh SSR in 1938. Being the only employee of this organization, G.I. Patsevich made a significant contribution to the study of Taraz archaeological sites and its vicinity. Over the years of work at the station, he carried out a number of archaeological surveys and excavations. He kept records and monitored the condition of historical and cultural heritage sites. G.I. Patsevich actively popularized the monuments of the past among the local population and wrote scientific works. The considered works of the scientist about the Taraz sites are only a small part of G.I. Patsevich’s scientific reseach in his great creative heritage. First of all, these are the Taraz settlement and the Tekturmas necropolis.

The work contains the results of a comprehensive archaeological and paleoanthropological analysis... more The work contains the results of a comprehensive archaeological and paleoanthropological analysis of unique materials which were received at the beginning of the 20th century by the Kuban Museum (now the Krasnodar Territory Krasnodar State Historical and Archaeological Museum-Reserve named after E.D. Felitsyn): fragments of the upholstery of a copper coffin, bronze parts of a saber sheath, iron arrowheads, a wooden comb, and an almost complete skeleton of a buried young man 25-35 years. This miraculously preserved collection comes from a predatory excavation of an underground military entombment next to the modern city of Krymsk. The grave goods, and the closest analogies to the finds and features of the burial rite, undoubtedly indicate the elite nature of the burial and allow us to date the complex to the second half of the 14th century. The analysis using the principal component method showed us a high similarity of the buried skull with materials which were found in the burials of the Aushedz, Karras and Glebovka entombments. This can indicate that the skull belonged to the sedentary population of the North-Western Caucasus – the direct ancestors of the modern Circassians or Abazas. The marks left by arrowheads on the vertebrae and the inside of the rib let us suggest that these injuries were the cause of the warrior’s death.

The conditions for the preservation of museum items, including organic archaeological materials, ... more The conditions for the preservation of museum items, including organic archaeological materials, are dictated by a number of aspects of museum practice: the organization of protection and preservation in exhibition halls and museum depositories; the system of registration and storage of museum values; restoration and conservation; exposition and exhibition activities, often associated with the transportation of exhibits. Organic archaeological materials make up almost a quarter of the archaeological collection of the National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan from the ancient times to the ethnographic present. The purpose of the article is to summarize the experience and museum practice of the National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan with organic archaeological materials: methodological approaches to preservation and methods of their exhibiting are considered.

The paper deals with the materials from three sites, namely the settlement Bannoye-5a (Berezki), ... more The paper deals with the materials from three sites, namely the settlement Bannoye-5a (Berezki), Telyashevo-4 and Sabakty-3/5. They are discovered with ceramics of the early nomads (late V – late IV century BC). All these sites are situated within a narrow strip of mountain steppes along the eastern slope of the Southern Urals (modern Abzelilovsky district of the Republic of Bashkortostan). It is on the same latitude as Magnitogorsk. The settlement Bannoye-5a (Berezki) was studied in 1972–1976 and 2004–2005. The received materials were analyzed and showed three points of spread early nomadic ceramics. Two of them were revealed by excavations and are rather small in size. Also a similar situation was at Telyashevo-4 settlement. It is shown that all three sites can be interpreted as nomadic campsites. When the author analyzes all the information about the spread area of Southern Ural nomads in the middle of the I millennium BC, the author can conclude that the campsites and other types of settlements close to them were quite common (more than 30 sites are currently recorded). It is particularly complicated to find and register such kind of sites, however, studying them is the only way to learn something new about their household, spread and land development.

The article presents paleoanthropological materials from the early period of the functioning of t... more The article presents paleoanthropological materials from the early period of the functioning of the Berel burial mound Pazyryk culture. The monument is located in Altai (Republic of Kazakhstan). The author presents craniological, odontological data and evidence of post-mortem manipulations with the bones of individuals from large mounds that belonged to people of high social status. The physical characteristics of the population represented in the burial mound find analogies both in the Pazyryk culture and among the population of the Saka cultures of Central Asia. The presence of a female skull with a Mongoloid appearance in mound 16 confirms already existing ideas about the participation of individuals with an eastern, Mongoloid appearance in the full life of the Pazyryk community. Post-mortem manipulations with bodies, traces of which are recorded on the skeletal remains of persons of high social status at the Berel burial mound, significantly complement the database for understanding the nuances of burial traditions associated with the artificial mummification of bodies. Farewell ceremonies in a nomadic lifestyle are not always possible in a short time. It can be assumed that the mummification of bodies was a preparatory stage for a complex and lengthy process of farewell traditions before the burial of the body in an arid climate.

Several skulls dated to the Early Iron Age discovered in various burial grounds located in the Pr... more Several skulls dated to the Early Iron Age discovered in various burial grounds located in the Prikuban and North Caucasus regions are examined in the article. All the skulls are dated to the early Iron Age. The skulls exhibit distinctive signs of scalping. Two of the skulls originate from the Meotian burial ground found in the Starokorsunsky hillfort No. 2, situated near Krasnodar and spanning from the 6th century BC to the 3rd century AD. One of the skulls was excavated from an ancient rural settlement dating to the 2nd centuries BC near the village of Starotitarovskaya in the Krasnodar region. Finally, the remaining skull was unearthed at the Gaston Uota site in Digor Gorge, North Ossetia. This site, concerning the Kobani culture, is dated between the 7th century BC and the 1st half of 4th century BC. The article presents four new instances of scalping originating from Southern Russia. All of the skulls belonged to adult males, and two of them exhibited injuries that appear to have occurred shortly before death. Among the skulls found at the Gaston-Uota burial ground and the settlement near Starotitarovskaya, scalping was executed in the conventional manner, entailing full-scale incisions over the entire hair-covered area. On the other hand, victims buried at the Starokorsunsky hillfort No. 2 displayed evidence of partial scalping, where only the top portion of the cranium vault was scalped, resulting in a limited area of scalp removal. This discrepancy in scalping techniques may reflect distinct cultural traditions associated with this ritualistic practice.

According to researchers, irrigation farming is considered to be the basis of Central Asian econo... more According to researchers, irrigation farming is considered to be the basis of Central Asian economy in ancient times. It should be noted that for the first time farming based on artificial irrigation appeared on the modern territory of Southern Turkmenistan, presumably, in IV–III millennium BC, and then, in III–II millennium BC, it spread to the south of Uzbekistan. This contributed to the appearance of the first state formations in Central Asia, mainly located along the banks of the rivers: the Amu Darya (Upper, Lower, Middle), in the oases of Murghab and Surkhan. This is due to the fact that in these territories artificial irrigation is much more favourable. This situation can be traced back to the example of the first world civilisations – Egypt (Nile River) and Mesopotamia (Tigris and Froth Rivers). It is the study of the irrigation history of these territories that helps to identify the factors that led to socio-economic changes in society and, as a consequence, to statehood. The author considers not only studies on the emergence and development of irrigation system in Central Asia, but also the sources of water most important for human life, namely the history of large and small rivers and streams.

The purpose of the study: The paper presents the results of comprehensive archaeological studies ... more The purpose of the study: The paper presents the results of comprehensive archaeological studies on the largest necropolis of the Golden Horde elite in the Ulus of Jochi – Lapas complex of mausoleums. A critical analysis of the information from written sources, materials, obtained during the studies in 1995-1997 and archaeological works on the Lapas complex in 2018-2022, were carried out. Research materials: The materials of topographic works carried out by the Volga Archaeological Expedition IA RAS in 1995-1997 and the data of decryption of remote sensing of the Earth, got by specialists of the Progress Rocket Space Centre in 2013, were used. The results of magnetometric and geodetic studies, conducted at the Lapas complex of mausoleums in 2018-2022, are presented. The results of the first archaeological excavation, conducted in order to study the stratigraphy and planography of the buried site (mausoleum No. 1), are shown. The analysis of the numismatic collection from the site is presented. Results and scientific novelty: Interdisciplinary research, held on the Lapas mausoleum complex, including topographic, geophysical, geodetic and archaeological works, allowed to make a number of assumptions and conclusions about the time of creation, activity and destruction of the complex, its general structure and design features, the potential of the archaeological site, its role and significance in the culture of the Golden Horde. The presented scientific research is pioneering, as earlier comprehensive studies of such level on archaeological sites of the Golden Horde period were not conducted.

The article considers the study of the scientific heritage of the outstanding Soviet archaeologis... more The article considers the study of the scientific heritage of the outstanding Soviet archaeologist Aleksei Petrovich Smirnov, the founder of the scientific direction in the archaeology of the Volga-Kama region – Bulgaristics. Of particular interest are the scientific works of the researcher, which have become classic: "The Volga Bolgars" and "Essays on the ancient and medieval history of the peoples in the Middle Volga and the Kama regions" published in 1951 and 1952 respectively. In the first book, the author gives a detailed description not only of the social, economic and political events in the history of Volga Bolgaria within the formation approach, but also of the material culture of its population. The peculiarity of this part of A.P. Smirnov's research is that there is no typological classification here, although A.P. Smirnov uses its basic principles very often. The author claims that this was the result of the "Marxisation" of archaeological science carried out in the USSR in the 1930s, when the typological method was considered bourgeois and unsuitable for the Soviet history of material culture, as archaeology came to be called. A.P. Smirnov, well-versed in the typological method developed by his teacher V.A. Gorodtsov, deliberately limited its use. At the same time, he successfully applied the results of studies in the 1920s by his colleagues-archaeologists – A.V. Artsikhovsky, S.V. Kiselyov, V.V. Golmsten, and others, concerning the general analysis of the subject world in the context of social history. Smirnov, in the book "The Volga Bolgars", laid the foundations for further scientific developments of his students in the field of Bulgaristics, for example, T.A. Khlebnikova. These approaches were presented in A.P. Smirnov’s second work.

The article deals with analysis of the main elements of the Golden Horde house interior. The inte... more The article deals with analysis of the main elements of the Golden Horde house interior. The interior of a “Mongolian” house consists of an adobe bench – sufa, a hearth, most often a tandoor and a horizontal chimney – kang bed-stove. A washbasin – toshnau – could be made in the floor. These elements are present not only in poor one-room houses, but are required for any living space, including in rich aristocratic estates. The main “furniture” is a U-shaped or L-shaped sufa, which can occupy most of the room. Specialists associate it with the Mongolian tradition, but similar sufas have been widespread in Central Asia since the early Middle Ages. The heating system of Golden Horde houses is represented by kangs, which have been known in the Far East since the early Iron Age. The oven for baking flatbreads, the tandoor, is most likely of Central Asian origin, since similar ovens have been known in this region since the Bronze Age. The U-shaped sufa, kang and tandoor form a kind of “triad” that characterizes the interior of not only the simplest one-room “Mongolian” house, but also any living space in rich multi-room estates in the Golden Horde. In addition to these three elements, a washbasin – toshnau, which was also brought to the Golden Horde from Central Asia, can be made in the floor of living rooms. Thus, most of the living room elements of the Golden Horde house were borrowed from Central Asia. Only the heating system in the form of kangs can be considered unambiguously Mongolian. The combination of tandoor, kang and large U-shaped sufa is a Golden Horde tradition, which later became widespread.

The paper considers the archaeological studies of the Volga Bolgaria fortifications by the famous... more The paper considers the archaeological studies of the Volga Bolgaria fortifications by the famous archaeologist –researcher of Bolgar A.P. Smirnov, one of the founders of Bolgar archaeology. His archaeological works on the Volga Bolgaria sites, started in the 30s of the XX century, served as an impulse for the development and further continuation of studies of medieval fortified settlements, located in the Middle Volga region. One of the important directions in archaeology, developed by A.P. Smirnov, was the study of fortified settlements of the X–XIV centuries. In particular, he paid serious attention to the defensive structures of these settlements, tried to determine the development of military engineering of that time in the region. The article presents his insight and interpretation of the fortification sites of the Bolgar period. Due to the archaeological excavations by the researcher, we got some of the first materials on the subject. This allowed his colleagues and following generations of scientists – archaeologists, historians and specialists in local history to use the most interesting scientific data, to lean on it in their work and, thus, to continue the archaeological studies of the defensive lines of the Bolgar fortified settlements.

When studying medieval Bolgar, A.P. Smirnov and his colleagues paid attention not only to the sit... more When studying medieval Bolgar, A.P. Smirnov and his colleagues paid attention not only to the site of the ancient settlement surrounded by the preserved defensive structures, but also excavated the areas adjacent to the fortifications from the south and west – Maliy Gorodok and Armenian colony, respectively, as well as the foot of the upper Volga terrace and backland parts of the monument and "Aga-Bazar" settlement. Continuing these traditions in 2018-2019 the archaeological reconnaissances were conducted by the Institute of Archaeology named after A.Kh. Khalikov of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences on the periphery of the Bolgar fortified settlement in order to establish the current condition of the monuments in the neighbourhood of the settlement, as well as to verify cartographic, archival materials and reports of residents on the discovery of individual finds on the territory of the modern town of Bolgar. "Armenian colony" as well as seven sites, located on the territory of the modern town of Bolgar and settlement of Privolzhsky, archaeologically surveyed. It was found that the preserved areas of the cultural layer of the "Armenian colony" are covered with modern ballast. Previously unknown archaeological objects – Bolgar urban-type unfortified settlement, preliminary dated to the middle of XIII–XIV centuries, and Privolzhskoye (Podyvanovskoye) III unfortified settlement (middle of XIII-XIV centuries and single finds of Imenkovo culture of IV–VII centuries AD) were revealed on two sites of the survey.

The article deals with numismatic materials received by the State Historical Musum from Bolgar. C... more The article deals with numismatic materials received by the State Historical Musum from Bolgar. Coins were found during archaeological works led by N.D. Aksenova in 1970 in the XXXV excavation. The total number of attributed coins is 43 copies, including 1 Samanid dirham of the XX century, 7 silver and 34 copper Juchid coins, as well as one Nizhny Novgorod copeck. All of them are kept in the State Historical Museum. The coinage of the middle of the XIII century includes 8 copper dinars, in the first quarter of the XIV century, 2 anepigraphic dirhams were issued. 25 puls belong to the period of the second and third trimester, including 4 coins with countermarks of the second half of the XIV century. Three specimens were also found in the excavation, issued at the beginning of the XV century – 2 Bolgar akcha and 1 Nizhny Novgorod copeck. At the end of the paper is a map, indicating the location of the excavation and a photo table, depicting16 coins.

During archaeological studies, a representative collection of Finno-Ugric artefacts (20 pcs.) was... more During archaeological studies, a representative collection of Finno-Ugric artefacts (20 pcs.) was collected in the central part of the Bolgar fortified settlement. Most of them are various decorations and clothing items. They were made of copper alloy. Among the finds of the pre-Mongol period there are jingling pendants of various types, their details, clasps (syulgams) and copper tube beads. Some of the items have analogies among the objects from the Lomovatovo culture sites. Other items are similar to objects from the burial complexes of the muroma and merya people. There are similar artefacts in individual burials on the territory of Volga Bolgaria. Objects of the Golden Horde period were represented by 2 types of copper clasps (syulgams): with triangular blades and spiral-ended. Clasps of these types are typical Mordovian ornaments. The finds of the XVIII–XIX centuries include a comb-pendant made of copper alloy.

The study of the social topography of medieval Bolgar has been one of the important directions si... more The study of the social topography of medieval Bolgar has been one of the important directions since the beginning of systematic archaeological works in 1938. During the work of the archaeological expedition led by A.P. Smirnov, there was accumulation of the material and data on the social topography of Bolgar. The locations of various handicraft complexes were recorded, the concentration of ceramics of various ethnic-cultural groups was noted. To characterize the Bolgar sites A.P. Smirnov and his followers used terminology more typical for Russian medieval urban settlements («posad», «sloboda»). Attempts to single out city blocks because of craft specialization did not bring noticeable results. Nowadays, with the use of a wide range of objects of material culture, objects of monumental architecture and the features of residential buildings, as well as application of the data on the location of craft complexes, the size of estates, it is possible to allocate at least four large craft districts for the Golden Horde Bolgar: trade and craft district, the area beyond the Melenka river with metallurgical and pottery industries, the area of metallurgical production at the Black Chamber, and the pottery district by the Gollandskoye lake. The districts existed simultaneously just in the first half of the XIV century. The urban periphery in the western and southern parts was occupied by large estates. They could belong to the local feudal elite. The historical core of the city, on the site of the pre-Mongol citadel, can be associated with the administrative center of Bolgar of the Golden Horde period. Administrative functions could also be performed by residents in the area around the Мaly minaret (Small Minaret).