Armando Machado - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Armando Machado

Perspectives on Behavior Science, 2020

The acknowledgement section was updated in the original article to include the sentence "PG would... more The acknowledgement section was updated in the original article to include the sentence "PG would like to thank Dr. Robert F. Littleton for his ongoing support". Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

According to Grau and Joynes (2005), (1) the current classification of types of learning is based... more According to Grau and Joynes (2005), (1) the current classification of types of learning is based on methodology and assumes a correspondence between types of learning and distinct neural-functional mechanisms; (2) this assumption is wrong because experiments show that different mechanisms may underlie the same type of learning; consequently, (3) we should change the teaching of the psychology of learning. I argue that because Grau and Joynes misunderstood the nature of the classification of learning phenomena and cloaked their research findings with a garb of conceptual errors and infelicities, their recommendations concerning the teaching of learning should be rejected.

Shame and Philosophy, 2008

Philosophers in the Anglo-American tradition began to take renewed interest in the emotions in th... more Philosophers in the Anglo-American tradition began to take renewed interest in the emotions in the 1960s. Since then the dominant ‘research program’ in the philosophy of the emotions has been—what is widely, though not uncontroversially, called—cognitivism. Authors such as Anthony Kenny (1963), Robert Solomon (1976, 2003c), Gabriele Taylor (1985), and Peter Goldie (2000)1 have offered explanations of the human emotions chiefly in terms of the beliefs (thoughts, judgements, evaluations) of the agents; in the early stages this ‘project’ was seen (often self-consciously) as a corrective to ‘feeling theories’ of the emotions, particularly those offered and/or influenced by William James (1884) and Carl Lange (1885)—often referred to as the James-Lange theory—which depicted emotions in a manner which led to them being characterised as irrational irruptions into an otherwise rational life. Cognitivism was seen as a corrective to this, in that it set out to rationally explain the emotions. Recently, the post-1960s, dominance of philosophical cognitivism has been subjected to strong criticism.

In this essay we introduce the idea of an epistemic triangle, with factual, theoretical, and conc... more In this essay we introduce the idea of an epistemic triangle, with factual, theoretical, and conceptual investigations at its vertices, and argue that whereas scientific progress requires a balance among the three types of investigations, psychology's epistemic triangle is stretched disproportionately in the direction of factual investigations. Expressed by a variety of different problems, this unbalance may be created by a main operative theme-the obsession of psychology with a narrow and mechanical view of the scientific method and a misguided aversion to conceptual inquiries. Hence, to redress psychology's epistemic triangle, a broader and more realistic conception of method is needed and, in particular, conceptual investigations must be promoted. Using examples from different research domains, we describe the nature of conceptual investigations, relate them to theoretical investigations, and illustrate their purposes, forms, and limitations.

Psychological Review, 1996

The developmental theory of Jean Piaget has been criticized on the grounds that it is conceptuall... more The developmental theory of Jean Piaget has been criticized on the grounds that it is conceptually limited, empirically false, or philosophically and epistemologically untenable. This study attempts to rebut these criticisms by showing that most of them (a) derive from widespread misinterpretations of the work of Piaget; (b) fail to appreciate the 2 central issues of his thinking-how new forms of thinking emerge during ontogenesis and how they become psychologically necessary; (c) incorrectly assume that many controversies concerning his theory can be settled empirically or methodologically before they are clarified conceptually; (d) ignore various modifications of Piagetian theory, particularly those advanced after 1970; and (e) forget the dialectical, constructivist, and developmental nature of Piaget's unique approach to human development. Although the authors do not claim there is a "true" Piaget to be discovered, or that the problems with his theory vanish when it is better understood, they do claim that important aspects of Piaget's work have not been assimilated by developmental psychologists.

Behavioural Processes, 2003

American Psychologist, 2007

Within the complex set of activities that comprise the scientific method, three clusters of activ... more Within the complex set of activities that comprise the scientific method, three clusters of activities can be recognized: experimentation, mathematization, and conceptual analysis. In psychology, the first two of these clusters are well-known and valued, but the third seems less known and valued. The authors show the value of these three clusters of scientific method activities in the works of the quintessential scientist Galileo Galilei. They then illustrate how conceptual analysis can be used in psychology to clarify the grammar and meaning of concepts, expose conceptual problems in models, reveal unacknowledged assumptions and steps in arguments, and evaluate the consistency of theoretical accounts. The article concludes with a discussion of three criticisms of conceptual analysis.

Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 2003

We reviewed Daniel Povinelli's book, Folk physics for apes: The chimpanzee's theory of how the wo... more We reviewed Daniel Povinelli's book, Folk physics for apes: The chimpanzee's theory of how the world works. After a summary of the book's contents, we analyzed two sets of experiments on chimpanzees' folk psychology: one that explored whether chimpanzees understand that others see (i.e., that apes have internal visual experiences) and another that examined whether chimpanzees can distinguish intended from unintended actions. The conceptual scaffolding on which these studies were conceived was sufficiently faulty that their outcomes were virtually assured a priori. We then analyzed two sets of experiments on chimpanzees' folk physics, reinforcing our view that conceptual confusion guaranteed that certain key predictions about the outcome of these studies could not be supported. A unifying reason for this conceptual confusion is that the author devalues understanding that results from programmatic conditioning. We closed the review by relating Povinelli's findings and conclusions to behavior analysis and by explaining why behavior analysts should read this book

Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 2014

Responding by exclusion, one of the most robust phenomena in Experimental Psychology, consists of... more Responding by exclusion, one of the most robust phenomena in Experimental Psychology, consists of choosing an undefined comparison stimulus given an undefined sample, when the comparison stimulus is presented next to other experimentally defined stimuli. The goal of the present study was to determine whether responding by exclusion could be obtained using samples that varied along a single dimension. Using a double temporal bisection task, ten university students learned to choose visual comparisons (colored circles) based on the duration of a tone. In tests of exclusion, sample stimuli with new durations were followed by comparison sets that included one previously trained, defined comparison (colored circle) and one previously untrained, undefined comparison (geometric shape). Subjects preferred the defined comparisons following the defined samples and the undefined comparisons following the undefined samples, the choice pattern typical of responding by exclusion. The use of samples varying along a single dimension allows us to study the interaction between stimulus generalization gradients and exclusion in the control of conditional responding.

Comparative Cognition & Behavior Reviews, 2019

Zentall's (2019) target article, "What suboptimal choice tells us about the control of behavior,"... more Zentall's (2019) target article, "What suboptimal choice tells us about the control of behavior," is in three parts. The first part reviews a set of studies that have yielded surprising findings: In relatively simple choice tasks, animals seem to behave irrationally by making suboptimal choices. The second part introduces a set of hypotheses to account for the surprising findings: Animals may behave according to a variety of heuristics that are adaptive in their natural environments but maladaptive in the contrived laboratory settings. The third part explains what suboptimal choice in fact tells us about the control of behavior. In this commentary we argue that Part 1 is timely, interesting, and important; that Part 2, potentially the article's greatest contribution, includes imaginative, testable hypotheses alongside conceptually confused and even inconsistent hypotheses; and that Part 3 may be too vague to be useful. We conclude with some general remarks on the nature of the problems brought to our attention by the target article.

The Behavior Analyst, 2012

Revista Brasileira de Análise do Comportamento, 2012

O presente estudo analisa a diferenciação numérica de padrões de resposta. Em uma caixa de Skinne... more O presente estudo analisa a diferenciação numérica de padrões de resposta. Em uma caixa de Skinner com duas teclas, sete pombos receberam comida após bicarem pelo menos N vezes na tecla esquerda e depois uma vez na tecla direita (programa "Fixed Consecutive Number" de Mechner). Em cada ensaio, o parâmetro N era ajustado por um programa de reforço percentil (uma forma de shaping automático). O estudo teve dois objetivos. Primeiro, determinar como é que varia o tamanho das corridas na tecla da esquerda durante o procedimento de modelagem (shaping) e durante uma fase de extinção que se seguiu. Segundo, comparar os dados obtidos com as previsões de um modelo teórico de diferenciação da resposta. Os resultados mostraram que, durante a modelagem, o tamanho das corridas na tecla esquerda aumentou e depois, para alguns pombos, estabilizou, enquanto para outros pombos permaneceu variável. Alguns pombos pararam de responder quando o tamanho médio da corrida atingiu valores elevados. Observaram-se ainda variações sistemáticas nos tamanhos das corridas no interior de cada sessão como, por exemplo, o aumento do tamanho da corrida ao longo da sessão. Durante a fase de extinção os pombos produziram distribuições de tamanhos de corrida semelhantes às distribuições produzidas durante as últimas sessões de modelagem com exceção, em alguns sujeitos, do elevado número de corridas de tamanho zero. Estes resultados são interpretados à luz do modelo teórico de diferenciação numérica das respostas.

Learning & Behavior, 2016

In temporal discriminations tasks, more than one stimulus may function as a time marker. We studi... more In temporal discriminations tasks, more than one stimulus may function as a time marker. We studied two of them in a matching-to-sample task, the sample keylight and the houselight that signaled the intertrial interval (ITI). One group of pigeons learned a symmetrical matching-to-sample task with two samples (2 s or 18 s of a center keylight) and two comparisons (red and green side keys), whereas another group of pigeons learned an asymmetrical matching-to-sample task with three samples (2 s, 6 s, and 18 s) and two comparisons (red and green). In the asymmetrical task, 6-s and 18-s samples shared the same comparison. In a subsequent retention test, both groups showed a preference for the comparison associated with the longer samples, a result consistent with the hypothesis that pigeons based their choices on the duration elapsed since the offset of the houselight (i.e., sample duration + retention interval). Results from two no-sample tests further corroborated the importance of the ITI illumination as a time marker: When the ITI was illuminated, the proportion of choices correlated positively with the retention interval; when the ITI was darkened, choices fell to random levels. However, the absolute value of choice proportions suggested that the sample stimulus was also a time marker. How multiple stimuli acquire control over behavior and how they combine remains to be worked out.

Journal of experimental psychology. Animal learning and cognition, 2016

We examined whether temporal learning in a bisection task is absolute or relational. Eight pigeon... more We examined whether temporal learning in a bisection task is absolute or relational. Eight pigeons learned to choose a red key after a t-seconds sample and a green key after a 3t-seconds sample. To determine whether they had learned a relative mapping (short→Red, long→Green) or an absolute mapping (t-seconds→Red, 3t-seconds→Green), the pigeons then learned a series of new discriminations in which either the relative or the absolute mapping was maintained. Results showed that the generalization gradient obtained at the end of a discrimination predicted the pattern of choices made during the first session of a new discrimination. Moreover, most acquisition curves and generalization gradients were consistent with the predictions of the learning-to-time model, a Spencean model that instantiates absolute learning with temporal generalization. In the bisection task, the basis of temporal discrimination seems to be absolute, not relational. (PsycINFO Database Record

Animal Learning & Behavior, 2005

Psychological Review, 1997

This study presents a dynamic model of how animals learn to regulate their behavior under timebas... more This study presents a dynamic model of how animals learn to regulate their behavior under timebased reinforcement schedules. The model assumes a serial activation of behavioral states during the interreinfbrcement interval, an associative process linking the states with the operant response, and a rule mapping the activation of the states and their associative strength onto response rate or probability. The model fits data sets from fixed-interval schedules, the peak procedure, mixed fixedinterval schedules, and the bisection of temporal intervals. The major difficulties of the model came from experiments that suggest that under some conditions animals may time 2 intervals independently and simultaneously. : Time is not a cause, but a vehicle of causes.

Psychological Review, 1993

Recurrent choice has been studied for many years. A static law, matching, has been established, b... more Recurrent choice has been studied for many years. A static law, matching, has been established, but there is no consensus on the underlying dynamic process. The authors distinguish between dynamic models in which the model state is identified with directly measurable behavioral properties (performance models) and models in which the relation between behavior and state is indirect (state models). Most popular dynamic choice models are local, performance models. The authors show that behavior in different types of discrimination-reversal experiments and in extinction is not explained by 2 versions of a popular local model and that the nonlocal cumulative-effects model is consistent with matching and that it can duplicate the major properties of recurrent choice in a set of discrimination-reversal experiments. The model can also duplicate results from several other experiments on extinction after complex discrimination training.

Learning and Motivation, 2011

To better understand short-term memory for temporal intervals, we reexamined the choose-short eff... more To better understand short-term memory for temporal intervals, we reexamined the choose-short effect. In Experiment 1, to contrast the predictions of two models of this effect, the subjective shortening and the coding models, pigeons were exposed to a delayed matching-to-sample task with three sample durations (2, 6 and 18 s) and retention intervals ranging from 0 to 20 s. Consistent with the coding model, the results suggested a sudden forgetting of memories for duration. In Experiment 2, to test the confusion hypothesis, the characteristics of the ITI and the retention interval differed. Contrary to the confusion hypothesis, a choose-short effect was obtained. In both experiments, a test with only two of the three comparison keys was performed. The results suggest three effects that may be controlling the birds' responses: stimulus generalization when no retention interval is present; an increase in random responding at longer retention intervals; and, similarly, an increase in preference for the "short-sample" key at longer retention intervals.

Learning & Behavior, 2012

In two experiments, we investigated emergent conditional relations in pigeons using a symbolic ma... more In two experiments, we investigated emergent conditional relations in pigeons using a symbolic matching-tosample task with temporal stimuli as the samples and hues as the comparisons. Both experiments comprised three phases. In Phase I, pigeons learned to choose a red keylight (R) but not a green keylight (G) after a 1-s signal. They also learned to choose G but not R after a 4-s signal. In Phase II, correct responding consisted of choosing a blue keylight (B) after a 4-s signal and a yellow keylight (Y) after a 16-s signal. Comparisons G and B were both related to the same 4-s sample, whereas comparisons R and Y had no common sample. In Phase III, R and G were presented as samples, and B and Y were presented as the comparisons. The choice of B was correct following G, and the choice of Y was correct following R. If a relation between comparisons that shared a common sample were to emerge, then responding to B given G would be more likely than responding to Y given R. The results were generally consistent with this prediction, suggesting, for the first time in pigeons, the emergence of novel relations that involve temporal stimuli as nodal samples.