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Papers by Balak Ram

Journal of global resources, Jan 18, 2023

Based on the interpretation of all the Survey of India topographical sheets of Rajasthan on 1:50,... more Based on the interpretation of all the Survey of India topographical sheets of Rajasthan on 1:50,000 scale and Google Earth Images, basin wise a total of 455 rivers are identified and mapped and flow charts are prepared. Basin wise water resources development & planning documents are consulted to find out their characteristics, problems and potentials. Chambal, Mahi and Luni basins have good network of rivers. A large number of small rivers/nallah originating from low hills and uplands, are lost in sandy/alluvial plains. Overall unwarranted human activities are sole responsible for deterioration of river condition. Encroachment over river bed for agriculture and habitation is common where river passes through alluvium or sandy plain. This happened particularly in Sabi, Banganga, Shekhawati and Ruparail basins. Here large stretches of river have lost their existence. Other menace are: river sand mining; discharge of sewage and industrial effluents; dumping mining waste and slurry of marble, sandstone and granite processing units. Large scale mining activities have blocked natural drainage system and reduced free flow of rainwater in rivers. Suggestions are given to improve the river condition and increase water yield.

Current Agriculturre, 2022

Tribal region of southern Rajasthan remained agriculturally backward and its people poor even fro... more Tribal region of southern Rajasthan remained agriculturally backward and its people poor even from colonial and feudal period. Instead of developing agriculture and allied sector, its forest, minerals and human resources are arbitrarily exploited. Dungarpur is one of such a district which has 70.82 % of its total population tribal and comes under 100 backward districts of India. Analysing and using long term data and related reports, the agricultural situation and peasant’s condition of this district are assessed. The present status of natural and human resources has been depicted and their problems and potentials are worked out. Arable lands in the district are just 45.12 % and that of net sown area 34.84 %. Forest though constitute 16.72% but 88.5 % of them are degraded/ underutilized. Gross irrigated area is 12.91% and irrigation intensity 102%. Surprisingly, 46% irrigation wells are lying dry. Crude maize-wheat cropping system does not support livelihood. Tanks/reservoirs too are in deteriorated condition. Predominant marginal & eroded rainfed lands; meagre livelihood assets; chronic poverty, misery and deprivation; and weak health and education system are major factors for backwardness of this tribal dominated district. The district falls in bottom lines in composite index for agriculture and livestock sector and human development index in the State. However potentials and avenues are still there to overcome the above challenges to a great extent.

Arid Land Research and Management, 2010

The northwestern hot arid region of India has been classified in 15 resource management domains (... more The northwestern hot arid region of India has been classified in 15 resource management domains (RMDs) by integrating biophysical resources and socioeconomic indicators. Each RMD is uniform with respect to the natural resource base and socioeconomic indicators, thus, these have similar potential=constraints and social status. The RMDs, (1) Western dune complex-livestock based livelihood, (2) Hard pan soil-livestock based livelihood, (10) Coastal rocky upland-labor based livelihood, and (11) Coastal ranns and mud flats-labor based livelihood, have severe biophysical constraints and low socioeconomic status. The RMDs with moderate biophysical constraints and medium socioeconomic status are (3) Sandy plain-rainfed farming and livestock, (4) Eastern sandy plain under rainfed=limited tube well irrigation, (5) Luni basin alluvial plain rainfed=brackish water irrigation, (6) Luni-Banas pediment-rainfed=limited dug-well irrigation, (12) Kachchh mainland-rainfed=limited irrigation (13) Santhalpur aeo-alluvial plain-rainfed farming, (14) Basaltic rocky=gravelly upland rainfed farming=labor based livelihood, and (15) Basaltic piedmont=valley fill with rainfed=limited irrigation. The RMDs associated with negligible biophysical constraints and high socioeconomic status are (7) Dune complex with limited canal irrigation, (8) Canal irrigated aeolian plain, and (9) Intensive canal irrigated Sutlej-Yamuna river plain. Priority areas for research and development of each RMD have been suggested. Change analysis with respect to land use, area under different crops, and crop production revealed that the region is heading towards intensification and higher yields.

The changes under different land uses as influenced by human activities in Rajasthan, India, are ... more The changes under different land uses as influenced by human activities in Rajasthan, India, are examined in retrospect and prospect. Statistical data on land use, cropping pattern, irrigation and crop production between 1957-58 and 1997-98 are used. District, tehsil, block and ...

Watershed development programme in India was launched in 1983-84 in a big way to conserve and uti... more Watershed development programme in India was launched in 1983-84 in a big way to conserve and utilise natural resources for higher productivity, employment generation and better livelihood. Arid western Rajasthan has 30398 micro-watersheds out of which 7771 are sanctioned, 3064 are completed and 4707 are in progress. However, due to physico-climatic constraints expected results/impacts are not obtained. In recent past several studies are undertaken to assess the impacts and outcome of watershed development and management programme but could not came up with appropriate solution to major challenges. The present study tries to focus district wise present status of watershed programme in arid western Rajasthan. The status and characteristics of surface and ground water resources as well as of various climatic parameters are discussed. Both positive and negative impacts are worked out. Major constraints of the region are highlighted and important challenges are pin pointed. Based on watershed development work carried out by different organizations/institutions as well as research outcome on management of natural and agricultural resources, technologies and management practices are suggested for efficient watershed development and management.

Agricultural Research

Soil plays a critical role in earth’s biosphere by supporting the production of food, fodder and ... more Soil plays a critical role in earth’s biosphere by supporting the production of food, fodder and fiber. However, rapid land use changes in recent times in different parts of the world led to increasing concern on soil health. It has been realized that changes in land use systems significantly affect soil properties. Therefore, we studied the impact of land use systems on soil physicochemical properties in the Thar Desert of India. Surface soil samples (0–30 cm) from four land use systems: (1) sand dunes, (2) grazing lands, (3) rainfed croplands and (4) irrigated croplands have been collected and analyzed in laboratory to determine soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC), CaCO3 content, organic carbon content, available P content, available K content and micronutrients (Zn, Fe, Mn, and Cu) content. We observed higher clay, organic carbon and nutrient contents and lower bulk density values in irrigated croplands than in other land use systems. Soil pH and EC were higher in irrigated croplands than in the other land use systems. Principal component analysis of soil physicochemical properties revealed two major soil factors, the clay–carbon factor and salinity factor, which were able to significantly differentiate the land use systems. For irrigated croplands, the clay–carbon factor was found to be higher than the rest of the land uses; however, the salinity factor was the lowest. Higher values of these two factors will lead to a favorable soil physicochemical environment for plant growth or better soil health. These two factors may further be used for assessing the impact of land use systems on soil quality in other regions.

Indian Cartographer Vol. 40, 2020

Watershed management in arid western Rajasthan is a most challenging task where ephemeral drainag... more Watershed management in arid western Rajasthan is a most challenging task where ephemeral drainage system covers just 1/3 area within its 20.87 mha land. In such a vast area, there are total 30398 micro-watersheds out of which 7771 are sanctioned, 3064 are completed and 4707 are in progress. However, due to physico-climatic constraints expected results/impacts are not obtained. In recent past several studies are undertaken to assess the impacts and outcome of watershed development and management programme but could not came up with appropriate solution to major challenges. The present study try to focus district wise present status of watershed programme in arid western Rajasthan. The status and characteristics of surface and ground water resources as well as of various climatic parameters are discussed. Both positive and negative impacts are worked out. Major constraints of the region are highlighted and important challenges are pin pointed. Based on watershed development work carried out by different organizations/institutions as well as research outcome on management of natural and agricultural resources, technologies and management practices are suggested for sustainable watershed management.

Indian Cartographer, 2020

In fragile hot arid ecosystem, natural resources are very poor, scarce and much prone to degradat... more In fragile hot arid ecosystem, natural resources are very poor, scarce and much prone to degradation. Burgeoning population and increased demand for land based products in recent past, led to overexploitation of natural resources and environmental degradation. Major human activities/interventionsrelated to natural resources and their impact on health and quality of natural resources as well as socioeconomic condition of peoples in Arid Western Rajasthan, are examined.. Both positive as well as negative impacts are highlighted. Development of irrigation through canals and extracting more ground water have increased agricultural production to a tune of 14.41 million tons during 2016-17 but rendered 62 Development Blocks overexploited. Irrigation with saline/sodic water rendered hectares of land out of cultivation while excessive irrigation in IGNP led to waterlogging/salinization problem. Mining activities developed at larger scale, have created new wasteland and health hazard. Total production from 31 minerals in 2012-13 reached to 155.19 million tons. Production of 8.7 lakh metric tonnes of crude oil and 3.7 (MMSCMD) gas from Barmer-Sanchor Basin and coming up of Pachpadra Refinery are land mark development. Industrial effluents from textile dyeing and printing industries polluted river bed and badly affected irrigation wells. Shrinkage, encroachment and degradation of pastures and forest is another negative impact.

International Journal of Remote Sensing, 1993

Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 2009

Over the last four decades exploitation of natural resources to meet increasing societal demands ... more Over the last four decades exploitation of natural resources to meet increasing societal demands for land based products has caused significant changes in land use and land cover not only in nature's best gifted regions but also environmentally sensitive arid regions. Through digital interpretation of IRS LISS-III data of 2004 supported with field survey, the present land use map of Jhunjhunun district of arid Rajasthan has been prepared. Agriculture is the dominant land use constituting 84% (including 38% irrigated cropland) area. The land use changes over time and space are

Current Agriculture, 2019

Abstract: Palaeo-history of arid Rajasthan has been revisited to find out how primitive man appea... more Abstract: Palaeo-history of arid Rajasthan has been revisited to find out how primitive man appeared and settled in this region and gradually evolved art of agriculture and uses of land. From long struggle over 190,000 years with climate and physical environment and spending hunting and gathering; the early man took the sedentary life. During Pleistocene period, man appeared in north- west India. Origin of primitive agriculture took place during last glaciation in wooded land by sedentary folk. In the second interglacial period when climatic conditions were favourable man inhabited in large numbers. With long experience and favourable climatic conditions he learnt the art of agriculture. Arid Rajasthan has been part of Indus valley civilization where settled agriculture exists with nomadic herdsmanship in Kalibangan. The whole life of man was revolutionized during Mesolithic and Neolithic period. After long association with cultivated fields a sense of ownership developed. From Aryan and Vedic age to Gupta dynasty expansion of cultivation, irrigation, land tenure and land management system were developed. After fall of Gupta Empire in sixth century, the north India came under political unrest. The establishment and development of Rajput power given way to feudal system with anti-peasant land tenure system with lot of taxes, cess and ‘begars’. The condition remained almost unchanged during Mughal and British period. Arid western Rajasthan constitute erstwhile Marwar, Bikaner and Jaisalmer princely states and Shekhawati federation of Jaipur State where feudal system was prevalent. Statistics of land use and agriculture of these princely states are analyzed to assess agriculture and peasants condition. Net sown area in khalsa villages in Marwar was just 29% and in Bikaner state 14% only. Irrigated area was 4% in Marwar and 0.4% in Bikaner. In 1950-51 the net sown area in entire western Rajasthan was 37.7% of total khalsa area. After independence the jagirdari and other land tenure system were abolished and land reforms were undertaken. This given way to significant development of agriculture

Journal of global resources, 2019

Barmer, the western most district of Arid Rajasthan, has recently witnessed dynamic changes in la... more Barmer, the western most district of Arid Rajasthan, has recently witnessed dynamic changes in land use; agriculture and irrigation, exploration of crude oil and natural gas, lignite and other minerals; and infrastructure developments. Using multifaceted historical data from 1960-61 and interpretation of LANDSAT 8 images of January, 2018 and Sentinel-2A imagery of February, 2017, major changes/developments in relation to physical environment as well as natural and human resources, are assessed and mapped. Drivers of such changes as well their positive and negative impacts are brought out and key challenges are highlighted towards development planning. Barmer district with 28387 Km 2 areas has its 78 percent area under agriculture which is mainly rainfed and supported on sand dunes and interdunal plains. Net and gross irrigated area is now 9.22 percent and 13.58 percent. Cumin, isabgol and castor are most promising cash crops. Since 1960-61 the net sown area has increased by 27.9 percent, net irrigated area by 27.5 times and gross irrigated area by 40.5 times. Total crop production has increased by 183.4 percent. Consequently, five blocks of the district are overexploited through groundwater and the state of groundwater development is 114.23 percent. Major developments are: exploration of minerals like lignite; crude oil and natural gas from Barmer-Sanchore Basin; Introduction of Narmada Canal for irrigation and drinking water in 83000 ha command area in Dhorimanna and Guda Malani tehsils, coming up of 9.0 MMTPA capacity HRRL Pachpadra Refinery; and development of Desert National park and Wildlife Sanctuary. Introduction Land use keeps changing with time through human intervention influenced by their needs and choices. In fragile hot arid zone of India, the land use system is highly delicate, less dependable and minimal livelihood supportive. However, in recent past enormous changes and developments in land use systems are taken place. Man has succeeded to create irrigation potential through sinking more wells and bringing canal irrigation; cultivation of cash crops, exploration of minerals and oil and gas and infrastructure development. Spread over an area of 28387 Km 2 and accommodating over 26 lac human and 54 lac livestock population, the development scenario of the district is enormously changed from 1990 onward. In view of such developments, the present study has been undertaken to study, assess and map these changes/developments in relation to physical environment as well as natural and human resources analysing multifaceted and historical dataset from 1960-61 to 2016-17. These include; land use, irrigation, cropping pattern, crop production; Narmada Canal Project, Desert National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary; Textile dyeing and printing industries and impact of industrial effluents; exploration of lignite as well as crude oil and natural gas from Barmer-Sanchore Basin; and coming up of HRRL Pachpadra Refinery. Major drivers of such changes and their impact on environment, natural resources and animate and inanimate life of this desert district, are discussed. The human and livestock population in the district has increased by 300.7 percent and 155 percent respectively since 1961.