Barbara David - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Barbara David

British Journal of Social Psychology, Mar 1, 1996

The finding that minorities may tend to produce conversion whereas majorities may tend to produce... more The finding that minorities may tend to produce conversion whereas majorities may tend to produce compliance is an extremely important one for the study of social influence. Most research into minority conversion has been based on conversion theory (Moscovici, 1980) which, we would claim, rests on the notion that the 'true' influence exerted by minorities is possible only because they are essentially different from self. This paper reports two studies in a programme of research testing an alternative explanation, based on self-categorization theory, which assumes that perceived similarity to a potential source of influence will be the key to its deep and lasting success. Both studies employ a full majoritylminority X in-group/out-group design, socially significant reallife in-groupout-group memberships and measure attitudes directly relevant to these social identities. Study 1 uses immediate and delayed and Study 2 , public and private, responses as the measures of, respectively, compliance and conversion. The results support self-categorization theory in that, when exposed to both majority and minority out-group sources, subjects exhibited an immediatdpublic polarization away from the sources, towards a more extreme in-group position, and there was no diminution of the extremity of their position on delayed/private measures. The classic pattern of majorities bringing about greater compliance than conversion and minorities greater conversion than compliance was evinced in the in-group conditions of both studies, although this tended to be comparative rather than absolute. The implications of the results for the conflict between self-categorization theory and conversion theory are discussed and the future direction of our research indicated.

The aim of the reported studies was to provide a self-categorization-based explanation of the uni... more The aim of the reported studies was to provide a self-categorization-based explanation of the unique temporal patterning of minority in¯uence (David, 1994; David & Turner, 1992, 1996; Turner, 1991) as being based on changes in social context. Moderate feminist participants were exposed to an in-group minority (separatist feminist) message in no explicit context, an intragroup, or an intergroup context, and immediate and delayed measures of in¯uence were taken. The explicit contexts were either stated once or repeated prior to the delayed measure of in¯uence. Participants rejected the minority message when it was presented in a purely feminist context and accepted it in a context which included the salient outgroup. When no explicit context was stated and when an intragroup context was stated prior to the immediate measure only, participants displayed the classic conversion pattern of no immediate in¯uence followed by evidence of delayed in¯uence. Discussed are implications of the results for the self-categorization claim that in¯uence can only proceed from those categorized as similar to self, and the con¯ict of this proposal with conversion theory (

5 The gender wars: A self-categorisation theory perspective on the development of gender identity... more 5 The gender wars: A self-categorisation theory perspective on the development of gender identity Barbara David, Diana Grace, and Michelle K. Ryan “Who am I?” might be said to be the pre-eminent question of childhood. After telling us their name, the answer most children will give is that ...

The Development of the Social Self, 2004

Sex Roles, 2000

In this article we challenge the notion of stable, gender-related differences in the way people a... more In this article we challenge the notion of stable, gender-related differences in the way people acquire and process information, with men more likely to utilize separate knowing and women connected knowing. An alternative analysis highlights malleability and the importance of social context in determining knowing style. We examined the responses of 186 women and 81 men on the Attitudes Toward Thinking and Learning Survey (ATTLS; Galotti, Clinchy, Ainsworth, Lavin, & Mansfield, 1999) across 3 contexts. Results revealed that both men and women were more likely to use connected knowing in the context of similar in-groups compared to the context of dissimilar out-groups. Gender differences were only apparent where gender was made salient. Our data support an analysis of ways of knowing as flexible and context dependent and question the notion that knowing is intrinsically related to gender.

Psychology of Women Quarterly, 2004

Theorists suggest that gender differences in moral reasoning are due to differences in the self-c... more Theorists suggest that gender differences in moral reasoning are due to differences in the self-concept, with women feeling connected to others and using a care approach, whereas men feel separate from others and adopt a justice approach. Using a self-categorization analysis, the current research suggests that the nature of the self-other relationship, rather than gender, predicts moral reasoning. Study 1 found moral reasoning to be dependent upon the social distance between the self and others, with a care-based approach more likely when interacting with a friend than a stranger. Study 2 suggests that when individuals see others as ingroup members they are more likely to utilize care-based moral reasoning than when others are seen as outgroup members. Further, traditional gender differences in moral reasoning were found only when gender was made salient. These studies suggest that both the self and moral reasoning are better conceptualized as fluid and context dependent. "Stage three. .. morality is a functional morality for housewives and mothers; it is not for businessmen and professionals" (Kohlberg, 1969, p. 372). This quotation from Lawrence Kohlberg, arguably the most influential of moral reasoning theorists, illustrates the controversial difference between women's and men's moral reasoning that has been proposed by many theorists (e.g., Kohlberg, 1969, 1981, 1984; Piaget, 1932). The Stage 3 morality that Kohlberg speaks of as being useful for women is an intermediate stage of moral development that is not overly complex and is motivated by avoiding disapproval from others. In contrast, the more advanced stages that Kohlberg sees as being useful for men (Stages 5 and 6) are more complicated, involving the application of objective rules and standards. Care and Justice Approaches to Moral Reasoning Although Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning has been extremely influential, it also had its critics.

Child Development, 2008

Whereas traditional theories of gender development have focused on individualistic paths, recent ... more Whereas traditional theories of gender development have focused on individualistic paths, recent analyses have argued for a more social categorical approach to children's understanding of gender. Using a modeling paradigm based on K. Bussey and A. Bandura (1984), 3 experiments (N 5 62, N 5 32, and N 5 64) examined preschoolers' (M age 5 52.9 months) imitation of, and memory for, behaviors of same-sex and opposite-sex children and adults. In all experiments, children's imitation of models varied according to the emphasis given to the particular category of models, despite equal attention being paid to both categories. It is suggested that the categorical nature of gender, or age, informs children's choice of imitative behaviors.

British Journal of Social Psychology, 1996

The finding that minorities may tend to produce conversion whereas majorities may tend to produce... more The finding that minorities may tend to produce conversion whereas majorities may tend to produce compliance is an extremely important one for the study of social influence. Most research into minority conversion has been based on conversion theory (Moscovici, 1980) which, we would claim, rests on the notion that the 'true' influence exerted by minorities is possible only because they are essentially different from self. This paper reports two studies in a programme of research testing an alternative explanation, based on self-categorization theory, which assumes that perceived similarity to a potential source of influence will be the key to its deep and lasting success. Both studies employ a full majoritylminority X in-group/out-group design, socially significant reallife in-groupout-group memberships and measure attitudes directly relevant to these social identities. Study 1 uses immediate and delayed and Study 2 , public and private, responses as the measures of, respectively, compliance and conversion. The results support self-categorization theory in that, when exposed to both majority and minority out-group sources, subjects exhibited an immediatdpublic polarization away from the sources, towards a more extreme in-group position, and there was no diminution of the extremity of their position on delayed/private measures. The classic pattern of majorities bringing about greater compliance than conversion and minorities greater conversion than compliance was evinced in the in-group conditions of both studies, although this tended to be comparative rather than absolute. The implications of the results for the conflict between self-categorization theory and conversion theory are discussed and the future direction of our research indicated.

British Journal of Social Psychology, 1999

The aim of the reported studies was to provide a self-categorization-based explanation of the uni... more The aim of the reported studies was to provide a self-categorization-based explanation of the unique temporal patterning of minority in¯uence (David, 1994; David & Turner, 1992, 1996; Turner, 1991) as being based on changes in social context. Moderate feminist participants were exposed to an in-group minority (separatist feminist) message in no explicit context, an intragroup, or an intergroup context, and immediate and delayed measures of in¯uence were taken. The explicit contexts were either stated once or repeated prior to the delayed measure of in¯uence. Participants rejected the minority message when it was presented in a purely feminist context and accepted it in a context which included the salient outgroup. When no explicit context was stated and when an intragroup context was stated prior to the immediate measure only, participants displayed the classic conversion pattern of no immediate in¯uence followed by evidence of delayed in¯uence. Discussed are implications of the results for the self-categorization claim that in¯uence can only proceed from those categorized as similar to self, and the con¯ict of this proposal with conversion theory (

British Journal of Social Psychology, 2013

Role congruity theory predicts prejudice toward women who meet the agentic requirements of the le... more Role congruity theory predicts prejudice toward women who meet the agentic requirements of the leader role. In line with recent findings indicating greater acceptance of agentic behavior from women, we find evidence for a more subtle form of prejudice toward women who fail to display agency in leader roles. Using a classic methodology, the agency of male and female leaders was manipulated using assertive or tentative speech, presented through written (Study 1, N = 167) or verbal (Study 2, N = 66) communications. Consistent with predictions, assertive women were as likeable and influential as assertive men, while being tentative in leadership reduced the likeability and influence of women, but not of men. Although approval of agentic behavior from women in leadership reflects progress, evidence that women are quickly singled out for disapproval if they fail to show agency is important for understanding how they continue to be at a distinct disadvantage to men in leader roles.

British Journal of Social Psychology, Mar 1, 1996

The finding that minorities may tend to produce conversion whereas majorities may tend to produce... more The finding that minorities may tend to produce conversion whereas majorities may tend to produce compliance is an extremely important one for the study of social influence. Most research into minority conversion has been based on conversion theory (Moscovici, 1980) which, we would claim, rests on the notion that the 'true' influence exerted by minorities is possible only because they are essentially different from self. This paper reports two studies in a programme of research testing an alternative explanation, based on self-categorization theory, which assumes that perceived similarity to a potential source of influence will be the key to its deep and lasting success. Both studies employ a full majoritylminority X in-group/out-group design, socially significant reallife in-groupout-group memberships and measure attitudes directly relevant to these social identities. Study 1 uses immediate and delayed and Study 2 , public and private, responses as the measures of, respectively, compliance and conversion. The results support self-categorization theory in that, when exposed to both majority and minority out-group sources, subjects exhibited an immediatdpublic polarization away from the sources, towards a more extreme in-group position, and there was no diminution of the extremity of their position on delayed/private measures. The classic pattern of majorities bringing about greater compliance than conversion and minorities greater conversion than compliance was evinced in the in-group conditions of both studies, although this tended to be comparative rather than absolute. The implications of the results for the conflict between self-categorization theory and conversion theory are discussed and the future direction of our research indicated.

British Journal of Social Psychology, Mar 1, 1996

The finding that minorities may tend to produce conversion whereas majorities may tend to produce... more The finding that minorities may tend to produce conversion whereas majorities may tend to produce compliance is an extremely important one for the study of social influence. Most research into minority conversion has been based on conversion theory (Moscovici, 1980) which, we would claim, rests on the notion that the 'true' influence exerted by minorities is possible only because they are essentially different from self. This paper reports two studies in a programme of research testing an alternative explanation, based on self-categorization theory, which assumes that perceived similarity to a potential source of influence will be the key to its deep and lasting success. Both studies employ a full majoritylminority X in-group/out-group design, socially significant reallife in-groupout-group memberships and measure attitudes directly relevant to these social identities. Study 1 uses immediate and delayed and Study 2 , public and private, responses as the measures of, respectively, compliance and conversion. The results support self-categorization theory in that, when exposed to both majority and minority out-group sources, subjects exhibited an immediatdpublic polarization away from the sources, towards a more extreme in-group position, and there was no diminution of the extremity of their position on delayed/private measures. The classic pattern of majorities bringing about greater compliance than conversion and minorities greater conversion than compliance was evinced in the in-group conditions of both studies, although this tended to be comparative rather than absolute. The implications of the results for the conflict between self-categorization theory and conversion theory are discussed and the future direction of our research indicated.

The aim of the reported studies was to provide a self-categorization-based explanation of the uni... more The aim of the reported studies was to provide a self-categorization-based explanation of the unique temporal patterning of minority in¯uence (David, 1994; David & Turner, 1992, 1996; Turner, 1991) as being based on changes in social context. Moderate feminist participants were exposed to an in-group minority (separatist feminist) message in no explicit context, an intragroup, or an intergroup context, and immediate and delayed measures of in¯uence were taken. The explicit contexts were either stated once or repeated prior to the delayed measure of in¯uence. Participants rejected the minority message when it was presented in a purely feminist context and accepted it in a context which included the salient outgroup. When no explicit context was stated and when an intragroup context was stated prior to the immediate measure only, participants displayed the classic conversion pattern of no immediate in¯uence followed by evidence of delayed in¯uence. Discussed are implications of the results for the self-categorization claim that in¯uence can only proceed from those categorized as similar to self, and the con¯ict of this proposal with conversion theory (

5 The gender wars: A self-categorisation theory perspective on the development of gender identity... more 5 The gender wars: A self-categorisation theory perspective on the development of gender identity Barbara David, Diana Grace, and Michelle K. Ryan “Who am I?” might be said to be the pre-eminent question of childhood. After telling us their name, the answer most children will give is that ...

The Development of the Social Self, 2004

Sex Roles, 2000

In this article we challenge the notion of stable, gender-related differences in the way people a... more In this article we challenge the notion of stable, gender-related differences in the way people acquire and process information, with men more likely to utilize separate knowing and women connected knowing. An alternative analysis highlights malleability and the importance of social context in determining knowing style. We examined the responses of 186 women and 81 men on the Attitudes Toward Thinking and Learning Survey (ATTLS; Galotti, Clinchy, Ainsworth, Lavin, & Mansfield, 1999) across 3 contexts. Results revealed that both men and women were more likely to use connected knowing in the context of similar in-groups compared to the context of dissimilar out-groups. Gender differences were only apparent where gender was made salient. Our data support an analysis of ways of knowing as flexible and context dependent and question the notion that knowing is intrinsically related to gender.

Psychology of Women Quarterly, 2004

Theorists suggest that gender differences in moral reasoning are due to differences in the self-c... more Theorists suggest that gender differences in moral reasoning are due to differences in the self-concept, with women feeling connected to others and using a care approach, whereas men feel separate from others and adopt a justice approach. Using a self-categorization analysis, the current research suggests that the nature of the self-other relationship, rather than gender, predicts moral reasoning. Study 1 found moral reasoning to be dependent upon the social distance between the self and others, with a care-based approach more likely when interacting with a friend than a stranger. Study 2 suggests that when individuals see others as ingroup members they are more likely to utilize care-based moral reasoning than when others are seen as outgroup members. Further, traditional gender differences in moral reasoning were found only when gender was made salient. These studies suggest that both the self and moral reasoning are better conceptualized as fluid and context dependent. "Stage three. .. morality is a functional morality for housewives and mothers; it is not for businessmen and professionals" (Kohlberg, 1969, p. 372). This quotation from Lawrence Kohlberg, arguably the most influential of moral reasoning theorists, illustrates the controversial difference between women's and men's moral reasoning that has been proposed by many theorists (e.g., Kohlberg, 1969, 1981, 1984; Piaget, 1932). The Stage 3 morality that Kohlberg speaks of as being useful for women is an intermediate stage of moral development that is not overly complex and is motivated by avoiding disapproval from others. In contrast, the more advanced stages that Kohlberg sees as being useful for men (Stages 5 and 6) are more complicated, involving the application of objective rules and standards. Care and Justice Approaches to Moral Reasoning Although Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning has been extremely influential, it also had its critics.

Child Development, 2008

Whereas traditional theories of gender development have focused on individualistic paths, recent ... more Whereas traditional theories of gender development have focused on individualistic paths, recent analyses have argued for a more social categorical approach to children's understanding of gender. Using a modeling paradigm based on K. Bussey and A. Bandura (1984), 3 experiments (N 5 62, N 5 32, and N 5 64) examined preschoolers' (M age 5 52.9 months) imitation of, and memory for, behaviors of same-sex and opposite-sex children and adults. In all experiments, children's imitation of models varied according to the emphasis given to the particular category of models, despite equal attention being paid to both categories. It is suggested that the categorical nature of gender, or age, informs children's choice of imitative behaviors.

British Journal of Social Psychology, 1996

The finding that minorities may tend to produce conversion whereas majorities may tend to produce... more The finding that minorities may tend to produce conversion whereas majorities may tend to produce compliance is an extremely important one for the study of social influence. Most research into minority conversion has been based on conversion theory (Moscovici, 1980) which, we would claim, rests on the notion that the 'true' influence exerted by minorities is possible only because they are essentially different from self. This paper reports two studies in a programme of research testing an alternative explanation, based on self-categorization theory, which assumes that perceived similarity to a potential source of influence will be the key to its deep and lasting success. Both studies employ a full majoritylminority X in-group/out-group design, socially significant reallife in-groupout-group memberships and measure attitudes directly relevant to these social identities. Study 1 uses immediate and delayed and Study 2 , public and private, responses as the measures of, respectively, compliance and conversion. The results support self-categorization theory in that, when exposed to both majority and minority out-group sources, subjects exhibited an immediatdpublic polarization away from the sources, towards a more extreme in-group position, and there was no diminution of the extremity of their position on delayed/private measures. The classic pattern of majorities bringing about greater compliance than conversion and minorities greater conversion than compliance was evinced in the in-group conditions of both studies, although this tended to be comparative rather than absolute. The implications of the results for the conflict between self-categorization theory and conversion theory are discussed and the future direction of our research indicated.

British Journal of Social Psychology, 1999

The aim of the reported studies was to provide a self-categorization-based explanation of the uni... more The aim of the reported studies was to provide a self-categorization-based explanation of the unique temporal patterning of minority in¯uence (David, 1994; David & Turner, 1992, 1996; Turner, 1991) as being based on changes in social context. Moderate feminist participants were exposed to an in-group minority (separatist feminist) message in no explicit context, an intragroup, or an intergroup context, and immediate and delayed measures of in¯uence were taken. The explicit contexts were either stated once or repeated prior to the delayed measure of in¯uence. Participants rejected the minority message when it was presented in a purely feminist context and accepted it in a context which included the salient outgroup. When no explicit context was stated and when an intragroup context was stated prior to the immediate measure only, participants displayed the classic conversion pattern of no immediate in¯uence followed by evidence of delayed in¯uence. Discussed are implications of the results for the self-categorization claim that in¯uence can only proceed from those categorized as similar to self, and the con¯ict of this proposal with conversion theory (

British Journal of Social Psychology, 2013

Role congruity theory predicts prejudice toward women who meet the agentic requirements of the le... more Role congruity theory predicts prejudice toward women who meet the agentic requirements of the leader role. In line with recent findings indicating greater acceptance of agentic behavior from women, we find evidence for a more subtle form of prejudice toward women who fail to display agency in leader roles. Using a classic methodology, the agency of male and female leaders was manipulated using assertive or tentative speech, presented through written (Study 1, N = 167) or verbal (Study 2, N = 66) communications. Consistent with predictions, assertive women were as likeable and influential as assertive men, while being tentative in leadership reduced the likeability and influence of women, but not of men. Although approval of agentic behavior from women in leadership reflects progress, evidence that women are quickly singled out for disapproval if they fail to show agency is important for understanding how they continue to be at a distinct disadvantage to men in leader roles.

British Journal of Social Psychology, Mar 1, 1996

The finding that minorities may tend to produce conversion whereas majorities may tend to produce... more The finding that minorities may tend to produce conversion whereas majorities may tend to produce compliance is an extremely important one for the study of social influence. Most research into minority conversion has been based on conversion theory (Moscovici, 1980) which, we would claim, rests on the notion that the 'true' influence exerted by minorities is possible only because they are essentially different from self. This paper reports two studies in a programme of research testing an alternative explanation, based on self-categorization theory, which assumes that perceived similarity to a potential source of influence will be the key to its deep and lasting success. Both studies employ a full majoritylminority X in-group/out-group design, socially significant reallife in-groupout-group memberships and measure attitudes directly relevant to these social identities. Study 1 uses immediate and delayed and Study 2 , public and private, responses as the measures of, respectively, compliance and conversion. The results support self-categorization theory in that, when exposed to both majority and minority out-group sources, subjects exhibited an immediatdpublic polarization away from the sources, towards a more extreme in-group position, and there was no diminution of the extremity of their position on delayed/private measures. The classic pattern of majorities bringing about greater compliance than conversion and minorities greater conversion than compliance was evinced in the in-group conditions of both studies, although this tended to be comparative rather than absolute. The implications of the results for the conflict between self-categorization theory and conversion theory are discussed and the future direction of our research indicated.