Belinda Clark - Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by Belinda Clark
Australian Critical Care, Dec 31, 2022
The aim of this research was to investigate changes in driver blood alcohol concentration (BAC) l... more The aim of this research was to investigate changes in driver blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels within the Perth metropolitan area over time through a replication of, and comparison with, two previous road side surveys conducted during 1999 (Ryan, 2000) and in 2000 (Kirov, 2001). Data was collected at roadside police Random Breath Testing (RBT) sites during April to May 2012. A total of 8,435 tests were conducted over a six week period on Thursday, Friday and Saturday nights. Around 7% of drivers tested returned a positive BAC, and 1.4% of these had BACs over the legal limit. There was a relatively even proportion of drink drivers detected across the three week nights, Thursday, Friday and Saturday but a greater proportion of drink drivers were detected in the early morning sessions between 1am and 4:45 am. The back-calculation process applied to BAC evidentiary tests in Western Australia resulted in 26 drivers not receiving a drink driving charge and 65 drivers receiving a r...
Journal of Road Safety
Drug driving continues to be overrepresented in both fatal and serious injury crashes in Victoria... more Drug driving continues to be overrepresented in both fatal and serious injury crashes in Victoria. As an enforcement countermeasure, preliminary oral fluid tests to detect drug driving were introduced in Victoria, Australia in December 2004. Recent research has modelled the relationships between prevalences of THC and methamphetamine in fatally and seriously injured drivers and (a) the annual numbers of random and targeted drug tests during 2010-2016 and (b) the positive detection rates from these tests. The increase in roadside drug tests in Victoria from 42,000 in 2013 (1% of licensed drivers) to 100,000 per year (2.2% of drivers), particularly targeted tests, is estimated to have saved 33 fatal crashes (13.7% reduction) and at least 80 serious injury crashes (1.4% reduction) per year. Based on the findings from this research, further increases in targeted and random roadside drug tests are warranted, up to at least 390,100 total tests per year, which are estimated to save a furth...
The Parliamentary Road Safety Committee (and Social Development Committee) has played an integral... more The Parliamentary Road Safety Committee (and Social Development Committee) has played an integral role in informing Parliament on road safety issues within Victoria since its inception in 1967. This information has resulted in the introduction of road safety initiatives that have been associated with significant reductions in injury and fatality on Victorian roads. This report documents a history of the Committee’s Inquiries and Outcomes. Over the life of the Committee 45 completed and 2 current Inquiries have addressed the following themes (including the number of times this topic has been addressed): Alcohol/Drugs (10); Licensing/demerits points (7); Roadworthiness and vehicle design/safety features (6); Children/Pedestrians (6); Speed limits (5); Motorcycles/Mopeds (5); General road safety (5); Rural road safety (2); and Older road users (1). It is pertinent to note that the focus of earlier Inquiries was on driver behaviour and licensing, whereas only recently has road infrastru...
This report describes a three phase project that aimed to identify traffic enforcement practices ... more This report describes a three phase project that aimed to identify traffic enforcement practices in Western Australia (WA) and the opportunities for improvement reflecting best practice elsewhere and scientific evidence of effectiveness. Phase 1 was a review of effective Australian and international practice in traffic enforcement. It also reviewed the extended role that traffic police could play in the Safe System approach to road safety. This phase led to a number of recommendations for WA Police based on the major operational conclusions from the research. Phase 2 was workshops with WA traffic police to identify issues and opportunities based on practice elsewhere, as well as the unique characteristics of traffic policing in the State. Phase 3 aimed to bring together the external and local experience to identify opportunities for improved traffic enforcement practice and any further research and investigation necessary in WA. It should be noted that the workshops were exploratory...
Legislation and enforcement systems are recognised effective mechanisms to curb illegal driving b... more Legislation and enforcement systems are recognised effective mechanisms to curb illegal driving behaviours, particularly amongst young offenders. Evidence suggests that when applied together with behavioural and educational programs, significant gains can be achieved toward reducing the prevalence and recidivism of these behaviours. A review of best practice evidence and comparison with two examples of educational programs currently implemented in Victoria was undertaken, in order to better understand the potential benefits of such programs. These programs are built on restorative justice principles, employ a cognitive behavioural approach designed to support behaviour change through a process of education, reflection and prevention, and are offered as part of either a sentencing option (for older and recidivist offenders) or early intervention (targeted at youths). The comparisons focused on key aspects of delivery, content, style, structure, and therapeutic approaches. The finding...
The Journal of the Australasian College of Road Safety, 2012
Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of accidental death in Australia, with substantial so... more Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of accidental death in Australia, with substantial societal costs. Unlike crash test dummies, child vehicle passengers rarely sit still and their behaviour can often be unpredictable. Analysis of naturalistic driving video data from journeys undertaken by 12 families with young children revealed that children accounted for 12% of all potentially distracting activities, with drivers in this study interacting with rear seat child occupants 12 times as often as they did with mobile phones. Educational interventions to reduce driver distraction are discussed and the use of the naturalistic driving methodology is proposed to investigate the potential benefits of a novel, best practices-based road safety education program targeting child-related driver distraction. Outcomes of such an evaluation could be used to inform and refine future education strategies designed to minimise child- related driver distraction and crash risk, and to improve ove...
Exploration into current road safety data collection in Victoria has revealed a gap in the collec... more Exploration into current road safety data collection in Victoria has revealed a gap in the collection of data on behaviours revealed through roadside observation surveys. The Baseline Research Program Committee funded this project to design a roadside observation survey. The design was based on earlier benchmark of safety surveys, conducted by MUARC in 2001 and modified to accommodate new variables and updated information. This survey design proposes a sound sampling framework that can be adapted to suit small or large scale research. Data observation forms are specifically designed to collect data on: vehicle information, driver and passenger characteristics, the presence and fitting of bull-bars, the use of mobile phones while driving, motorcyclist and bicyclist characteristics, and child restraint wearing. Roadside data collection procedures have been outlined and a detailed staff training manual has been included. While the survey is designed to enable the collection of single b...
The appropriateness of applying drink driving legislation to motorcycle riding has been questione... more The appropriateness of applying drink driving legislation to motorcycle riding has been questioned as there may be fundamental differences in the effects of alcohol on these two activities. For example, while the distribution of blood alcohol content (BAC) levels among fatally injured male drivers compared to riders is similar, a greater proportion of motorcycle fatalities involve levels in the lower (0 to .10% BAC) range. Several psychomotor and higher-order cognitive skills underpinning riding performance appear to be significantly influenced by low levels of alcohol. For example, at low levels (.02 to .046% BAC), riders show significant increases in reaction time to hazardous stimuli, inattention to the riding task, performance errors such as leaving the roadway and a reduced ability to complete a timed course. It has been suggested that alcohol may redirect riders’ focus from higher-order cognitive skills to more physical skills such as maintaining balance. As part of a research...
The Road Trauma Awareness Seminar (RTAS) is a short, non-treatment based offender program which a... more The Road Trauma Awareness Seminar (RTAS) is a short, non-treatment based offender program which aims to bring about attitude and behavioral change, and reduce recidivism and hence road trauma. The aim of this project was to explore the current best practice literature in the field of behavior change programs and evaluation methods considered comparable to the RTAS program in order to inform recommendations to enhance the current RTAS program. Overall, the findings of the review showed that research exploring driving behaviour changes based on crash and/or re-offence rates following attendance at this type of program, typically has not identified significant positive effects. Limited relevant research and a number of methodological issues have contributed to this finding. However, when viewed as a program aimed at providing participants with insight into the risks associated with high risk driving behaviours, such as facing further sanctions or serious injury or fatal crash involveme...
In recent years significant effort has been focused on improving the safety culture amongst fleet... more In recent years significant effort has been focused on improving the safety culture amongst fleet buyers; however around half of all new vehicles sold in Australia are for private use. In attempts to highlight the importance of vehicle safety amongst private consumers of both new and used cars, a number of consumer information programs have been developed. These include the Australian New Car Assessment Program (ANCAP), the Used Car Safety Ratings (UCSR) Program and the howsafeisyourcar.com.au web site. Surveys have identified an increase during the past decade in the level of consumer interest in vehicle safety. Despite this, the priority private consumers place on vehicle safety within their purchasing decision remains unclear. A comprehensive review revealed a paucity of public information regarding consumer understanding of specific safety features or ratings, and the importance placed on safety features relative to other features such as convenience and comfort. The aim of this...
The Royal Automobile Club (RAC) of Western Australia contracted the Curtin-Monash Accident Resear... more The Royal Automobile Club (RAC) of Western Australia contracted the Curtin-Monash Accident Research Centre (C-MARC) to provide a critical review of the relevant literature on the links between blood alcohol limits, alcohol sales and advertising on alcohol-related road crashes. The aims of the review were 1) to document the effects of lower (less than the current legal 0.05 per cent BAC) doses of alcohol on road user performance and behaviour; 2) to document the effects of low doses of alcohol on road crash rates and outcomes; and 3) to review national and international published research studies linking the influence of alcohol trading hours, sales, and advertising on road crash rates and outcomes. Based on the literature review, it is concluded that alcohol related crash risk and the associated costs are significant and ongoing road safety issues in Australia. With the successful adoption of zero BAC limits for learner and probationary drivers/riders across Australia, it may now be...
Australian Critical Care, Dec 31, 2022
The aim of this research was to investigate changes in driver blood alcohol concentration (BAC) l... more The aim of this research was to investigate changes in driver blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels within the Perth metropolitan area over time through a replication of, and comparison with, two previous road side surveys conducted during 1999 (Ryan, 2000) and in 2000 (Kirov, 2001). Data was collected at roadside police Random Breath Testing (RBT) sites during April to May 2012. A total of 8,435 tests were conducted over a six week period on Thursday, Friday and Saturday nights. Around 7% of drivers tested returned a positive BAC, and 1.4% of these had BACs over the legal limit. There was a relatively even proportion of drink drivers detected across the three week nights, Thursday, Friday and Saturday but a greater proportion of drink drivers were detected in the early morning sessions between 1am and 4:45 am. The back-calculation process applied to BAC evidentiary tests in Western Australia resulted in 26 drivers not receiving a drink driving charge and 65 drivers receiving a r...
Journal of Road Safety
Drug driving continues to be overrepresented in both fatal and serious injury crashes in Victoria... more Drug driving continues to be overrepresented in both fatal and serious injury crashes in Victoria. As an enforcement countermeasure, preliminary oral fluid tests to detect drug driving were introduced in Victoria, Australia in December 2004. Recent research has modelled the relationships between prevalences of THC and methamphetamine in fatally and seriously injured drivers and (a) the annual numbers of random and targeted drug tests during 2010-2016 and (b) the positive detection rates from these tests. The increase in roadside drug tests in Victoria from 42,000 in 2013 (1% of licensed drivers) to 100,000 per year (2.2% of drivers), particularly targeted tests, is estimated to have saved 33 fatal crashes (13.7% reduction) and at least 80 serious injury crashes (1.4% reduction) per year. Based on the findings from this research, further increases in targeted and random roadside drug tests are warranted, up to at least 390,100 total tests per year, which are estimated to save a furth...
The Parliamentary Road Safety Committee (and Social Development Committee) has played an integral... more The Parliamentary Road Safety Committee (and Social Development Committee) has played an integral role in informing Parliament on road safety issues within Victoria since its inception in 1967. This information has resulted in the introduction of road safety initiatives that have been associated with significant reductions in injury and fatality on Victorian roads. This report documents a history of the Committee’s Inquiries and Outcomes. Over the life of the Committee 45 completed and 2 current Inquiries have addressed the following themes (including the number of times this topic has been addressed): Alcohol/Drugs (10); Licensing/demerits points (7); Roadworthiness and vehicle design/safety features (6); Children/Pedestrians (6); Speed limits (5); Motorcycles/Mopeds (5); General road safety (5); Rural road safety (2); and Older road users (1). It is pertinent to note that the focus of earlier Inquiries was on driver behaviour and licensing, whereas only recently has road infrastru...
This report describes a three phase project that aimed to identify traffic enforcement practices ... more This report describes a three phase project that aimed to identify traffic enforcement practices in Western Australia (WA) and the opportunities for improvement reflecting best practice elsewhere and scientific evidence of effectiveness. Phase 1 was a review of effective Australian and international practice in traffic enforcement. It also reviewed the extended role that traffic police could play in the Safe System approach to road safety. This phase led to a number of recommendations for WA Police based on the major operational conclusions from the research. Phase 2 was workshops with WA traffic police to identify issues and opportunities based on practice elsewhere, as well as the unique characteristics of traffic policing in the State. Phase 3 aimed to bring together the external and local experience to identify opportunities for improved traffic enforcement practice and any further research and investigation necessary in WA. It should be noted that the workshops were exploratory...
Legislation and enforcement systems are recognised effective mechanisms to curb illegal driving b... more Legislation and enforcement systems are recognised effective mechanisms to curb illegal driving behaviours, particularly amongst young offenders. Evidence suggests that when applied together with behavioural and educational programs, significant gains can be achieved toward reducing the prevalence and recidivism of these behaviours. A review of best practice evidence and comparison with two examples of educational programs currently implemented in Victoria was undertaken, in order to better understand the potential benefits of such programs. These programs are built on restorative justice principles, employ a cognitive behavioural approach designed to support behaviour change through a process of education, reflection and prevention, and are offered as part of either a sentencing option (for older and recidivist offenders) or early intervention (targeted at youths). The comparisons focused on key aspects of delivery, content, style, structure, and therapeutic approaches. The finding...
The Journal of the Australasian College of Road Safety, 2012
Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of accidental death in Australia, with substantial so... more Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of accidental death in Australia, with substantial societal costs. Unlike crash test dummies, child vehicle passengers rarely sit still and their behaviour can often be unpredictable. Analysis of naturalistic driving video data from journeys undertaken by 12 families with young children revealed that children accounted for 12% of all potentially distracting activities, with drivers in this study interacting with rear seat child occupants 12 times as often as they did with mobile phones. Educational interventions to reduce driver distraction are discussed and the use of the naturalistic driving methodology is proposed to investigate the potential benefits of a novel, best practices-based road safety education program targeting child-related driver distraction. Outcomes of such an evaluation could be used to inform and refine future education strategies designed to minimise child- related driver distraction and crash risk, and to improve ove...
Exploration into current road safety data collection in Victoria has revealed a gap in the collec... more Exploration into current road safety data collection in Victoria has revealed a gap in the collection of data on behaviours revealed through roadside observation surveys. The Baseline Research Program Committee funded this project to design a roadside observation survey. The design was based on earlier benchmark of safety surveys, conducted by MUARC in 2001 and modified to accommodate new variables and updated information. This survey design proposes a sound sampling framework that can be adapted to suit small or large scale research. Data observation forms are specifically designed to collect data on: vehicle information, driver and passenger characteristics, the presence and fitting of bull-bars, the use of mobile phones while driving, motorcyclist and bicyclist characteristics, and child restraint wearing. Roadside data collection procedures have been outlined and a detailed staff training manual has been included. While the survey is designed to enable the collection of single b...
The appropriateness of applying drink driving legislation to motorcycle riding has been questione... more The appropriateness of applying drink driving legislation to motorcycle riding has been questioned as there may be fundamental differences in the effects of alcohol on these two activities. For example, while the distribution of blood alcohol content (BAC) levels among fatally injured male drivers compared to riders is similar, a greater proportion of motorcycle fatalities involve levels in the lower (0 to .10% BAC) range. Several psychomotor and higher-order cognitive skills underpinning riding performance appear to be significantly influenced by low levels of alcohol. For example, at low levels (.02 to .046% BAC), riders show significant increases in reaction time to hazardous stimuli, inattention to the riding task, performance errors such as leaving the roadway and a reduced ability to complete a timed course. It has been suggested that alcohol may redirect riders’ focus from higher-order cognitive skills to more physical skills such as maintaining balance. As part of a research...
The Road Trauma Awareness Seminar (RTAS) is a short, non-treatment based offender program which a... more The Road Trauma Awareness Seminar (RTAS) is a short, non-treatment based offender program which aims to bring about attitude and behavioral change, and reduce recidivism and hence road trauma. The aim of this project was to explore the current best practice literature in the field of behavior change programs and evaluation methods considered comparable to the RTAS program in order to inform recommendations to enhance the current RTAS program. Overall, the findings of the review showed that research exploring driving behaviour changes based on crash and/or re-offence rates following attendance at this type of program, typically has not identified significant positive effects. Limited relevant research and a number of methodological issues have contributed to this finding. However, when viewed as a program aimed at providing participants with insight into the risks associated with high risk driving behaviours, such as facing further sanctions or serious injury or fatal crash involveme...
In recent years significant effort has been focused on improving the safety culture amongst fleet... more In recent years significant effort has been focused on improving the safety culture amongst fleet buyers; however around half of all new vehicles sold in Australia are for private use. In attempts to highlight the importance of vehicle safety amongst private consumers of both new and used cars, a number of consumer information programs have been developed. These include the Australian New Car Assessment Program (ANCAP), the Used Car Safety Ratings (UCSR) Program and the howsafeisyourcar.com.au web site. Surveys have identified an increase during the past decade in the level of consumer interest in vehicle safety. Despite this, the priority private consumers place on vehicle safety within their purchasing decision remains unclear. A comprehensive review revealed a paucity of public information regarding consumer understanding of specific safety features or ratings, and the importance placed on safety features relative to other features such as convenience and comfort. The aim of this...
The Royal Automobile Club (RAC) of Western Australia contracted the Curtin-Monash Accident Resear... more The Royal Automobile Club (RAC) of Western Australia contracted the Curtin-Monash Accident Research Centre (C-MARC) to provide a critical review of the relevant literature on the links between blood alcohol limits, alcohol sales and advertising on alcohol-related road crashes. The aims of the review were 1) to document the effects of lower (less than the current legal 0.05 per cent BAC) doses of alcohol on road user performance and behaviour; 2) to document the effects of low doses of alcohol on road crash rates and outcomes; and 3) to review national and international published research studies linking the influence of alcohol trading hours, sales, and advertising on road crash rates and outcomes. Based on the literature review, it is concluded that alcohol related crash risk and the associated costs are significant and ongoing road safety issues in Australia. With the successful adoption of zero BAC limits for learner and probationary drivers/riders across Australia, it may now be...