Bob Brathwaite - Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by Bob Brathwaite
Mineralium Deposita, 2011
Precious stone varieties of the beryllium mineral beryl have been known for six thousand years. W... more Precious stone varieties of the beryllium mineral beryl have been known for six thousand years. When polished, beryl served as an eyeglass, for example, it was used by Nero whilst observing Rome on fire in 64 A.D.. Beryllium was discovered as an oxide, now known as beryllia, in beryl and in emeralds in 1798 by the French chemist Louis Vauquelin. The pure metal was isolated in 1828 independently by Friedrich Wöhler in Germany and Antonine Bussy in France.
Definition The rare-earth elements (REE) are the 15 lanthanide elements with atomic numbers 57 th... more Definition The rare-earth elements (REE) are the 15 lanthanide elements with atomic numbers 57 through 71 that are in Group IIIA of the Periodic Table: lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutetium. The REE are represented by the single square of lanthanum in the main part of the Periodic Table and listed in a separate sub-table below the main groupings (Fig. 1). Yttrium (atomic number 39), a Group IIIA transition metal, although not a lanthanide is generally included with the REE as it occurs with them in natural minerals and has similar chemical properties. Commonly included with the REE because of their similar properties, are scandium (atomic number 21), also a Group IIIA transition metal, and thorium (atomic number 90), an element in the actinide series of the Periodic Table. Mineral Commodity Report 17 Rare Earths and Related Elements
Gold was probably the first metal used by humans because of its occurrence as a free metal in pla... more Gold was probably the first metal used by humans because of its occurrence as a free metal in placer deposits, enabling its recovery without the requirement of complex separation techniques. Earliest mining of these deposits, more than 6000 years ago, involved simple processes of washing or panning the alluvial sands and gravels. The myth of the Argonauts and the Golden Fleece probably had its origin in a raid upon miners who were using sheepskins to catch placer grains of gold. Ancient civilisations such as those in Egypt, China and India used gold for decoration and jewellery. Production was limited in extent until about 4000 years ago, when the Egyptians started producing significant quantities of gold from lode mines in the Sudan, Sinai and Egypt. Later, the Persians, Greeks and Romans learned the techniques of gold prospecting, mining and metallurgy from the Egyptians, and mined large quantities of gold from placer and lode deposits within their empires. Gold mining languished ...
Zeolites are crystalline, porous 3-dimensional aluminosilicates of the alkali (mainly Na and K) a... more Zeolites are crystalline, porous 3-dimensional aluminosilicates of the alkali (mainly Na and K) and alkaline-earth (mainly Ca) metals. Their crystal structure is based on a three dimensional framework of (SiAl)O4 tetrahedra with all four oxygens shared by adjacent tetrahedra (see illustrations in Armbruster and Gunter, 2001). This results in a channel structure with molecular dimensions of 3 to 10 Å. Because some of the Si4+ is substituted by Al3+, there is a net negative charge which is balanced by extra-framework exchangeable cations, mainly Na+, K+, Ca2+ or Mg2+. These cations are loosely held within the central cavities and surrounded by water molecules. The water molecules are loosely held in the pores and most zeolites can be reversibly dehydrated, and their cations readily exchanged. Zeolites have an empirical formula of: (M2,M )Al2O3gSiO2.zH2O, where M + is usually Na or K, M2+ is Mg, Ca, or Fe, and g and z are variable multipliers. Rarely Li, Sr, or Ba may substitute for M+...
Silver has been known and valued as an ornamental and decorative metal since ancient times. Silve... more Silver has been known and valued as an ornamental and decorative metal since ancient times. Silver articles have been found on the site of the Great Chaldean temple at Ur on the Euphrates, and in the tombs of Pharaohs dating back as far as 6000 years ago. About 5600 years ago, silver was mentioned in the books of the Egyptian Pharaoh Menes, who set its value at two-fifths that of gold. The Phoenicians used and traded silver obtained from mines in Armenia, Siphnos, Crete, Sardinia and Spain. Silver was used along with gold as money about 2800 years ago in countries between the Indus and the Nile.
Brothers volcano, of the Kermadec intraoceanic arc, is host to a hydrothermal system unique among... more Brothers volcano, of the Kermadec intraoceanic arc, is host to a hydrothermal system unique among seafloor hydrothermal systems known anywhere in the world. It has two distinct vent fields, known as the NW Caldera and Cone sites, whose geology, permeability, vent fluid compositions, mineralogy, and ore-forming conditions are in stark contrast to each other. The NW Caldera site strikes for ∼600 m in a SW–NE direction with chimneys occurring over a ∼145-m depth interval, between ∼1,690 and 1,545 m. At least 100 dead and active sulfide chimney spires occur in this field and are typically 2–3 m in height, with some reaching 6–7 m. Their ages (at time of sampling) fall broadly into three groups: <4, 23, and 35 years old. The chimneys typically occur near the base of individual faultcontrolled benches on the caldera wall, striking in lines orthogonal to the slopes. Rarer are massive sulfide crusts 2–3 m thick. Two main types of chimney predominate: Curich (up to 28.5 wt.% Cu) and, more...
New Zealand is the emergent part of a 4.9 Mkm2, mainly submerged continent in the SW Pacific Ocea... more New Zealand is the emergent part of a 4.9 Mkm2, mainly submerged continent in the SW Pacific Ocean that was formerly part of the Gondwana supercontinent. The geology can be described in terms of two main Cambrian-Early Cretaceous basement units (Western and Eastern provinces) and a Late Cretaceous-Holocene sedimentary and volcanic cover (Zealandia Megasequence and Rūaumoko Volcanics). New Zealand contains a large number of different kinds of mineral deposits and occurrences. The metallogenic map of New Zealand lists more than 600 metallic mineral deposits classified into 25 different types. This mineral diversity for a land area of only 270 500 km2 is a function of a varied and complex geology resulting from New Zealand's location at or near active plate boundaries for the past half billion years. Since the 2006 overview of New Zealand’s mineral deposits in the AUSIMM Monograph series, several advances have been made in our understanding of the country’s regional geological fram...
The epithermal gold-silver deposits wall poster is one in a series of posters on different minera... more The epithermal gold-silver deposits wall poster is one in a series of posters on different mineral deposit types being produced by GNS Science to raise awareness of the characteristics of New Zealand mineral deposits and their prospectivity. Epithermal deposits consist of quartz veins, quartz vein stockworks and hydrothermal breccias that are mainly hosted in subaerial andesitic or rhyolitic rocks of
... by Tony Christie and Bob Brathwaite Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences Ltd Discov... more ... by Tony Christie and Bob Brathwaite Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences Ltd Discovery and Origin of Names ... It burns in air at about 1200oC and in oxygen at 610oC, and is the only element that burns in nitrogen, at about 800oC. ...
The orogenic gold deposits wall poster is one in a series of posters on different mineral deposit... more The orogenic gold deposits wall poster is one in a series of posters on different mineral deposit types being produced by GNS Science to raise awareness of the characteristics of New Zealand mineral deposits and their prospectivity. Orogenic gold deposits are typically quartz vein deposits formed in fault and shear systems at crustal levels within and above the brittle ductile
The name lead is derived from the Old English lead and the symbol Pb is from the Latin plumbum me... more The name lead is derived from the Old English lead and the symbol Pb is from the Latin plumbum meaning a lead weight; zinc is from the Greek zink. Lead and zinc are among the oldest metals used. Lead figurines dating from 5800-5000 years ago have been found in Egypt and at the Dardenelles on the site of the ancient city of Abydos. The large lead (and silver) deposits of Laurion near Athens, were discovered 2600 years ago and became the main economic support of Athens. The Romans used lead extensively, particularly for water pipes, soldered with an alloy of lead and tin. Their lead was obtained from mines in Spain, Cyprus and Greece. Charlemangne established a provisional capital at Goslar in Germany because of the need to control and supervise the production of silver and lead in the nearby Rammelsberg mine. Lead craftspersons and artisans flourished during the Middle Ages of Europe, and their leaden ornaments and statues can be seen today on many buildings of the period, such as castles and cathedrals. Zinc was known in Roman times but only in combination with copper as the alloy brass. The metallurgists of India may have isolated zinc metal as early as the 13th century, and those of China had achieved large-scale production of zinc by the 16th century. In the 16th century Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus was the first European to recognise zinc as a distinct metallic element and he named it zinckum. William Champion of England produced zinc in 1743 by reducing zinc carbonate with coke. Major Ores and Minerals Lead rarely occurs as a native metal in nature. The main lead ore mineral is galena (Table 1), which may contain minor amounts of silver. Galena oxidises to various secondary lead minerals, mainly cerrusite, anglesite and pyromorphite Pb 5 (PO 4) 3 Cl.
Mineralium Deposita, 2011
Precious stone varieties of the beryllium mineral beryl have been known for six thousand years. W... more Precious stone varieties of the beryllium mineral beryl have been known for six thousand years. When polished, beryl served as an eyeglass, for example, it was used by Nero whilst observing Rome on fire in 64 A.D.. Beryllium was discovered as an oxide, now known as beryllia, in beryl and in emeralds in 1798 by the French chemist Louis Vauquelin. The pure metal was isolated in 1828 independently by Friedrich Wöhler in Germany and Antonine Bussy in France.
Definition The rare-earth elements (REE) are the 15 lanthanide elements with atomic numbers 57 th... more Definition The rare-earth elements (REE) are the 15 lanthanide elements with atomic numbers 57 through 71 that are in Group IIIA of the Periodic Table: lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutetium. The REE are represented by the single square of lanthanum in the main part of the Periodic Table and listed in a separate sub-table below the main groupings (Fig. 1). Yttrium (atomic number 39), a Group IIIA transition metal, although not a lanthanide is generally included with the REE as it occurs with them in natural minerals and has similar chemical properties. Commonly included with the REE because of their similar properties, are scandium (atomic number 21), also a Group IIIA transition metal, and thorium (atomic number 90), an element in the actinide series of the Periodic Table. Mineral Commodity Report 17 Rare Earths and Related Elements
Gold was probably the first metal used by humans because of its occurrence as a free metal in pla... more Gold was probably the first metal used by humans because of its occurrence as a free metal in placer deposits, enabling its recovery without the requirement of complex separation techniques. Earliest mining of these deposits, more than 6000 years ago, involved simple processes of washing or panning the alluvial sands and gravels. The myth of the Argonauts and the Golden Fleece probably had its origin in a raid upon miners who were using sheepskins to catch placer grains of gold. Ancient civilisations such as those in Egypt, China and India used gold for decoration and jewellery. Production was limited in extent until about 4000 years ago, when the Egyptians started producing significant quantities of gold from lode mines in the Sudan, Sinai and Egypt. Later, the Persians, Greeks and Romans learned the techniques of gold prospecting, mining and metallurgy from the Egyptians, and mined large quantities of gold from placer and lode deposits within their empires. Gold mining languished ...
Zeolites are crystalline, porous 3-dimensional aluminosilicates of the alkali (mainly Na and K) a... more Zeolites are crystalline, porous 3-dimensional aluminosilicates of the alkali (mainly Na and K) and alkaline-earth (mainly Ca) metals. Their crystal structure is based on a three dimensional framework of (SiAl)O4 tetrahedra with all four oxygens shared by adjacent tetrahedra (see illustrations in Armbruster and Gunter, 2001). This results in a channel structure with molecular dimensions of 3 to 10 Å. Because some of the Si4+ is substituted by Al3+, there is a net negative charge which is balanced by extra-framework exchangeable cations, mainly Na+, K+, Ca2+ or Mg2+. These cations are loosely held within the central cavities and surrounded by water molecules. The water molecules are loosely held in the pores and most zeolites can be reversibly dehydrated, and their cations readily exchanged. Zeolites have an empirical formula of: (M2,M )Al2O3gSiO2.zH2O, where M + is usually Na or K, M2+ is Mg, Ca, or Fe, and g and z are variable multipliers. Rarely Li, Sr, or Ba may substitute for M+...
Silver has been known and valued as an ornamental and decorative metal since ancient times. Silve... more Silver has been known and valued as an ornamental and decorative metal since ancient times. Silver articles have been found on the site of the Great Chaldean temple at Ur on the Euphrates, and in the tombs of Pharaohs dating back as far as 6000 years ago. About 5600 years ago, silver was mentioned in the books of the Egyptian Pharaoh Menes, who set its value at two-fifths that of gold. The Phoenicians used and traded silver obtained from mines in Armenia, Siphnos, Crete, Sardinia and Spain. Silver was used along with gold as money about 2800 years ago in countries between the Indus and the Nile.
Brothers volcano, of the Kermadec intraoceanic arc, is host to a hydrothermal system unique among... more Brothers volcano, of the Kermadec intraoceanic arc, is host to a hydrothermal system unique among seafloor hydrothermal systems known anywhere in the world. It has two distinct vent fields, known as the NW Caldera and Cone sites, whose geology, permeability, vent fluid compositions, mineralogy, and ore-forming conditions are in stark contrast to each other. The NW Caldera site strikes for ∼600 m in a SW–NE direction with chimneys occurring over a ∼145-m depth interval, between ∼1,690 and 1,545 m. At least 100 dead and active sulfide chimney spires occur in this field and are typically 2–3 m in height, with some reaching 6–7 m. Their ages (at time of sampling) fall broadly into three groups: <4, 23, and 35 years old. The chimneys typically occur near the base of individual faultcontrolled benches on the caldera wall, striking in lines orthogonal to the slopes. Rarer are massive sulfide crusts 2–3 m thick. Two main types of chimney predominate: Curich (up to 28.5 wt.% Cu) and, more...
New Zealand is the emergent part of a 4.9 Mkm2, mainly submerged continent in the SW Pacific Ocea... more New Zealand is the emergent part of a 4.9 Mkm2, mainly submerged continent in the SW Pacific Ocean that was formerly part of the Gondwana supercontinent. The geology can be described in terms of two main Cambrian-Early Cretaceous basement units (Western and Eastern provinces) and a Late Cretaceous-Holocene sedimentary and volcanic cover (Zealandia Megasequence and Rūaumoko Volcanics). New Zealand contains a large number of different kinds of mineral deposits and occurrences. The metallogenic map of New Zealand lists more than 600 metallic mineral deposits classified into 25 different types. This mineral diversity for a land area of only 270 500 km2 is a function of a varied and complex geology resulting from New Zealand's location at or near active plate boundaries for the past half billion years. Since the 2006 overview of New Zealand’s mineral deposits in the AUSIMM Monograph series, several advances have been made in our understanding of the country’s regional geological fram...
The epithermal gold-silver deposits wall poster is one in a series of posters on different minera... more The epithermal gold-silver deposits wall poster is one in a series of posters on different mineral deposit types being produced by GNS Science to raise awareness of the characteristics of New Zealand mineral deposits and their prospectivity. Epithermal deposits consist of quartz veins, quartz vein stockworks and hydrothermal breccias that are mainly hosted in subaerial andesitic or rhyolitic rocks of
... by Tony Christie and Bob Brathwaite Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences Ltd Discov... more ... by Tony Christie and Bob Brathwaite Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences Ltd Discovery and Origin of Names ... It burns in air at about 1200oC and in oxygen at 610oC, and is the only element that burns in nitrogen, at about 800oC. ...
The orogenic gold deposits wall poster is one in a series of posters on different mineral deposit... more The orogenic gold deposits wall poster is one in a series of posters on different mineral deposit types being produced by GNS Science to raise awareness of the characteristics of New Zealand mineral deposits and their prospectivity. Orogenic gold deposits are typically quartz vein deposits formed in fault and shear systems at crustal levels within and above the brittle ductile
The name lead is derived from the Old English lead and the symbol Pb is from the Latin plumbum me... more The name lead is derived from the Old English lead and the symbol Pb is from the Latin plumbum meaning a lead weight; zinc is from the Greek zink. Lead and zinc are among the oldest metals used. Lead figurines dating from 5800-5000 years ago have been found in Egypt and at the Dardenelles on the site of the ancient city of Abydos. The large lead (and silver) deposits of Laurion near Athens, were discovered 2600 years ago and became the main economic support of Athens. The Romans used lead extensively, particularly for water pipes, soldered with an alloy of lead and tin. Their lead was obtained from mines in Spain, Cyprus and Greece. Charlemangne established a provisional capital at Goslar in Germany because of the need to control and supervise the production of silver and lead in the nearby Rammelsberg mine. Lead craftspersons and artisans flourished during the Middle Ages of Europe, and their leaden ornaments and statues can be seen today on many buildings of the period, such as castles and cathedrals. Zinc was known in Roman times but only in combination with copper as the alloy brass. The metallurgists of India may have isolated zinc metal as early as the 13th century, and those of China had achieved large-scale production of zinc by the 16th century. In the 16th century Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus was the first European to recognise zinc as a distinct metallic element and he named it zinckum. William Champion of England produced zinc in 1743 by reducing zinc carbonate with coke. Major Ores and Minerals Lead rarely occurs as a native metal in nature. The main lead ore mineral is galena (Table 1), which may contain minor amounts of silver. Galena oxidises to various secondary lead minerals, mainly cerrusite, anglesite and pyromorphite Pb 5 (PO 4) 3 Cl.