Chana Akins - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Chana Akins

Texas Journal of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 2016

The objective of this preliminary study was to determine whether domestic pig social dominance co... more The objective of this preliminary study was to determine whether domestic pig social dominance confers later reproductive success. Two seminatural environments were established with a feeder, shaded pond, shelter and 2 acres of ground cover with alfalfa. Four prepuberal (2 males and 2 females) "resident" pigs were placed on the fields after the post-weaning dominance order was established. Pigs on one field showed a very stable dominance order, while the other field's dominance order was more volatile. Later, additional estrous gilts were brought to each field to determine which boar(s) bred each gilt. Boars shared estrous gilts, that is, both boars on each field bred estrous gilts. Fathership of litters from resident gilts was also shared by both boars on each field. Certain males which were socially dominant mounted estrous gilts more frequently. But all boars shared breedings of estrous gilts and paternity of litters.

The traditional learning view involves the general process theory of learning that focuses oniden... more The traditional learning view involves the general process theory of learning that focuses onidentifying universal principles that apply to all species capable of learning from experience, and that operate across a wide variety of situations. Examples of behavior that contradictgeneral-process conceptions of learning have been in the past referred to as “biologicalconstraints”. Traditional learning theorists choose to consider these examplesas exceptions to otherwise universal principles of learning. On the contrary, thetypical ethologist is more likely to be concerned with how specific behaviorsmay have evolved and in an animal’s species typical responses to stimuli theyare likely to encounter in their natural environment. However, they also fail to embrace animallearning phenomena that occurs in the laboratory into their theoreticalframework. Behavior systems represent analternative to this view by providing a link between traditional views oflearning and ethology. Theyconceptuali...

Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior

Learning & Behavior

Social learning has a large impact on fitness by reducing the costs and dangers associated with i... more Social learning has a large impact on fitness by reducing the costs and dangers associated with independent learning but little research has been conducted to investigate the ontogeny or individual development of this type of learning. Recent research indicated that puppies demonstrate social learning to both conspecific and human demonstrators, but were also more likely to learn better from an unfamiliar conspecific compared to their mother.

Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology, Jan 7, 2018

Addiction is characterized as a chronic debilitating disease. One devastating feature of addictio... more Addiction is characterized as a chronic debilitating disease. One devastating feature of addiction is the susceptibility of relapse (40-60%) after stretches of abstinence. One theory that may account for relapse suggests that drug cues (e.g., paraphernalia) may increase stress hormones, and this may prompt relapse. Repeatedly pairing a neutral cue with a reward is commonly utilized to measure what subjects learn about a cue that is predictive of reward. Research has shown that animals that attend to a cue more than to the reward (sign trackers) may be more vulnerable to drug addiction. Additionally, research has shown that sign tracking is associated with an increase in corticosterone, a primary stress hormone. PT150 is a novel glucocorticoid receptor antagonist that moderates the release of corticosterone. In the current experiment, it was hypothesized that subjects given repeated administration of PT150 would reduce sign tracking compared to subjects given placebo. Time spent (in ...

Current Psychopharmacology

Background: Cocaine is the number one abused psychostimulant drug that reaches addiction criterio... more Background: Cocaine is the number one abused psychostimulant drug that reaches addiction criterion in the US. In animals, repeated administration of cocaine results in behavioral sensitization which is thought to represent adaptations in the mesolimbic dopamine neural circuitry, the reward pathway. Cocaine-induced behavioral sensitization is evident in rodents and quail when cocaine is administered intraperitoneally (IP). Objective: The purpose of the current study was to investigate dose-dependent and temporal effects of acute and chronic intramuscular (IM) administration of cocaine in male quail. Method: After habituation to the test chambers, male quail received an IM injection of saline, 3 or 10 mg/kg cocaine and were immediately placed in the chambers. Distance traveled (in meters) was recorded in 5 min time bins for 30 min. Testing was conducted once per day for ten days with each subject receiving the same treatment throughout the experiment. Other behaviors including pecking, preening, and feather fluffing were measured. Results: Cocaine-induced behavioral sensitization and tolerance were evident at relatively low doses of IM cocaine. Dose-dependent effects were evident. IM cocaine also reduced feather fluffing, a behavior that typically occurs during hypothermia. Conclusion: The findings replicated and extended previous research with pigeons and suggested that IM administration of cocaine may be a relatively potent route of administration. Potency of drugs of abuse may be related to the bioavailability of a drug and its addictive properties. Thus, studying drugs of abuse using an IM route of administration may be useful in drug addiction research.

Learning & behavior, Jan 9, 2017

The incentive-sensitization theory posits that drug addiction results from altered learning and m... more The incentive-sensitization theory posits that drug addiction results from altered learning and motivational processes that stem from drug-induced changes in the brain's reward circuitry. Although it is generally accepted that problematic drug use results from these neuroadaptations, less research has focused on how these neural changes affect the incentive-motivational properties of naturally rewarding stimuli such as sex. The present set of experiments was conducted to investigate (1) dose-dependent effects of preexposure to chronic cocaine on sexual conditioning and (2) how prior cocaine exposure affects the extinction of sexually conditioned behavior in male Japanese quail. In Experiment 1, male quail were exposed to saline or to cocaine (5, 10, or 20 mg/kg ip) for 10 days, and their locomotor activity was measured. After a washout period, ten sexual-conditioning trials were conducted in which a light (CS) was presented prior to the presentation of a female quail (US) and ap...

Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 2016

Preclinical research has indicated that females may be more sensitive to the rewarding properties... more Preclinical research has indicated that females may be more sensitive to the rewarding properties of cocaine. However, the majority of this research has been done in rodent species. Environmental cues associated with human drug-taking behavior tend to be visual. Because rodents do not rely on the visual system as their primary sense modality, the use of a visually oriented species may add to our understanding of cue-elicited drug cravings and relapse. The present study examined the potential role of the steroid hormone, estradiol, in the rewarding properties of cocaine in female Japanese quail using a conditioned place preference (CPP) procedure. In the current experiment, female quail were housed on either an 8L:16D (light:dark) or 16L:8D (light:dark) cycle for 21 days to induce photoregression or photostimulation, respectively. They then received 10, 20, or 30 mg/kg cocaine, or saline during conditioning. Conditioning trials were carried out for 8 days, once per day for 30 min, for a total of 4 cocaine and 4 saline alternating conditioning trials. Results indicated that female quail housed in long-light conditions (16L:8D) had significantly higher levels of estradiol than short-cycle females. Additionally, photostimulated female quail developed a CPP to 10 and 20 mg/kg cocaine. Short-cycle females did not show cocaine-induced CPP to any dose tested. Results indicate that cocaine is dose-dependently rewarding to photostimulated female Japanese quail. Furthermore, the current findings suggest that estradiol may enhance the rewarding properties of cocaine in female quail. (PsycINFO Database Record

International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 2004

The literature on human sexual deviations is replete with case studies and behavior therapies tha... more The literature on human sexual deviations is replete with case studies and behavior therapies that demonstrate successful treatment of maladaptive sexual behavior acquired through Pavlovian conditioning. Ironically, the empirical research with humans in this area is limited and plagued by methodological confounds. Nonhuman animal studies have provided some information about the mechanisms of the role of Pavlovian conditioning in sexual arousal/behavior but have not been well coordinated with clinical research. The present paper serves to highlight the major empirical findings and theories of these two disparate bodies of literature, briefly discuss how they have emerged over time, and finally discuss their overlap and make connections between animal and human research on sexual arousal. It has been widely accepted that learning factors contribute to the etiology of human sexual deviations. For the purposes of this paper, "sexual deviations" are defined as abberant, maladaptive, and compulsive behaviors such as paraphilias, fetishes, and sexual offenses. Research on the role of Pavlovian conditioning in human sexual arousal has been focused heavily on the acquisition, development, and treatment of sexual deviations. The literature on humans includes a mixture of empirical research, theories of sexual deviations and an abundance of literature on treatment and case studies demonstrating the effectiveness of behavioral therapy. The role of learning in the sexual behavior of animals may have important implications for our understanding of human sexual arousal and sexual deviations, in particular with regard to the development of certain forms of sexual behavior such as paraphilias or sexual fetishes. However, the potentially relevant research on nonhuman animals has not been well-integrated with the clinical literature. Although a thorough review of the human and animal literature on sexual arousal is beyond the scope of this paper, the paper will attempt to briefly review these two bodies of literature, discuss how these areas have changed over time, and draw parallels and overlap between them. The organization of this paper is first to review theories, behavior therapies for sexual deviations, and empirical studies conducted with humans. Second, a description of the research that has been conducted with animals within the framework of several theories will be presented. Third, the paper will describe parallels and make connections between clinical and animal research. Research with Humans Theories of Deviant Sexual Behavior as Mediated by Pavlovian conditioning Although there are a wide variety of theories of abnormal sexual behavior (e.g., Geer & O'Donohue, 1987), common to most of these theories is the Thanks to Bill Timberlake, Editor Todd Schachtman, and anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on a previous version of this manuscript.

APA handbook of research methods in psychology, Vol 1: Foundations, planning, measures, and psychometrics., 2012

The Behavior Analyst Today, 2003

General process learning theory has accounted for many instances of both instrumental and Pavlovi... more General process learning theory has accounted for many instances of both instrumental and Pavlovian conditioning. The theory suggests that general laws of learning should apply across species, regardless of what stimuli are used or what response is measured. The literature on sexual conditioning provides a wide array of findings that indicate the importance of stimulus features, and the importance of careful consideration of the topography of the conditioned response to be measured. The present review addresses these issues in a sexual conditioning paradigm in which temporal contiguity (CS-US interval) and stimulus features were manipulated. The methodology also involved measuring numerous response topographies to maximize the likelihood of detecting learning. The findings of these experiments are discussed with regard to general process learning theory and the behavior systems approach. ********** General process learning theory assumes that the principles of learning apply across behavior systems and to many different stimuli and responses. This approach to the study of learning has had a long and distinguished history in the field of learning dating back to Thorndike, Pavlov, Skinner, Hull, and others (e.g., Bower & Hilgard, 1981). In particular, Skinner who was a general process theorist developed the operant chamber, presumably to encourage the study of general laws of learning by allowing scientists to study arbitrary stimuli and responses (Skinner, 1938). Despite the challenges proposed by many findings (Breland & Breland, 1961; Garcia & Koelling, 1966; Bolles, 1970; Seligman, 1970; Shettleworth, 1972), the general process learning approach has maintained its acceptance in the field of learning. When I first joined the laboratory of Dr. Michael Domjan, it was my impression that I would be adopting a general-process approach and that the research I would conduct would likely provide support for general laws of learning. Although I knew about findings such as the misbehavior of Pliny (Breland & Breland, 1961), selective associations in aversion learning (Garcia & Koelling, 1966) and others, I learned that these were exceptions to general rules of learning due to "biological constraints" on learning. That is, they were species-specific adaptations assumed to influence the manifestations of learning, not its mechanism. Thus, as a graduate student, I was excited that my research might demonstrate that general laws of learning also applied to a somewhat unconventional system, the sexual behavior system. Ironically, findings published from my dissertation (Akins, Domjan, & Gutierrez, 1994) would later provide strong evidence for alternative thinking about general process theory. This paper is a review of those findings, as well as more recent ones, and a discussion of how the findings have contributed to our understanding of theories that have been proposed to explain response systems. The CS-US Interval and Sexual Conditioning Temporal contiguity, a recurrent theme in the field of learning, suggests that two events have to occur temporally close together to become associated. In Pavlovian conditioning, temporal contiguity may be altered by increasing the time between the onset of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the onset of the unconditioned stimulus (US), the CS-US interval. Although there are a handful of experiments that have provided evidence for learning at relatively long CS-US intervals (e.g., Garcia, Ervin, & Koelling, 1966; Kamin, 1965; Millenson, Kehoe, & Gormezano, 1977; Holland, 1980), the common finding has been that acquisition of responding is inversely related to the CS-US interval (e.g., Schneiderman & Gormezano, 1964). Long intervals result in poorer learning or the absence of learning. Only one investigation on sexual conditioning and temporal contiguity had been reported at the time I began my dissertation research in 1991. Zamble, Mitchell, & Findlay (1986) studied the Pavlovian conditioning of sexual arousal in Long-Evans rats. …

Hormones and behavior, 2015

Research has indicated that gonadal hormones may mediate behavioral and biological responses to c... more Research has indicated that gonadal hormones may mediate behavioral and biological responses to cocaine. Estrogen, in particular, has been shown to increase behavioral responding to cocaine in female rats relative to male rats. The current study investigated the effect of cocaine on locomotor activity and hormonal correlates in male and female Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica). In Japanese quail, circulating hormone levels can be manipulated without surgical alterations via modifying the photoperiod. Male and female quail were housed on either 8L:16D (light:dark) or 16L:8D (light:dark) cycle for 21days. Blood samples were taken prior to the beginning of the experiment and assays were performed to determine the levels of testosterone (T) and estradiol (E2). Quail were given injections of saline or cocaine (10 or 20mg/kg) once a day for 10days. Immediately after each injection, birds were placed in open field arenas and distance traveled was measured for 30min. Results showed that ma...

The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology. B, Comparative and physiological psychology, 1996

In a trace conditioning procedure, subjects were presented with a 30-sec conditioned stimulus (CS... more In a trace conditioning procedure, subjects were presented with a 30-sec conditioned stimulus (CS) followed by a 30-sec trace interval. Delayed conditioning consisted of a 60-sec CS presentation followed by an unconditioned stimulus (US). Although conditioning developed with both procedures, the topography of the conditioned response differed. Sexual conditioned approach was evident in all of the subjects during the presentation of the CS. Trace-conditioned subjects moved away from the area where the CS had been presented during the trace interval but remained closer to the CS location than did an unpaired control. This reduction in the spatial specificity of the conditioned response was interpreted from a behaviour systems perspective. The trace interval presumably increased the perceived separation between the CS and the US and therefore elicited conditioned behaviour less specifically directed towards the CS.

Physiology & Behavior, 2015

State dependent learning effects have been widely studied in a variety of drugs of abuse. However... more State dependent learning effects have been widely studied in a variety of drugs of abuse. However, they have yet to be studied in relation to sexual motivation. The current study investigated statedependent learning effects of cocaine in male Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) using a sexual conditioning paradigm. Cocaine-induced state-dependent learning effects were investigated using a 2 × 2 factorial design with training state as one factor and test state as the other factor. During a 14-day training phase, male quail were injected once daily with 10 mg/kg cocaine or saline and then placed in a test chamber after 15 min. In the test chamber, sexual conditioning trials consisted of presentation of a light conditioned stimulus (CS) followed by sexual reinforcement. During the state dependent test, half of the birds received a shift in drug state from training to testing (Coc → Sal or Sal → Coc) while the other half remained in the same drug state (Coc → Coc or Sal → Sal). Results showed that male quail that were trained and tested in the same state (Coc → Coc or Sal → Sal) showed greater sexual conditioning than male quail that were trained and tested in different states (Sal → Coc) except when cocaine was administered chronically prior to the test (Coc → Sal). For the latter condition, sexual conditioning persisted from cocaine training to the saline test. The findings suggest that state dependent effects may alter sexual motivation and that repeated exposure to cocaine during sexual activity may increase sexual motivation which may, in turn, may lead to high risk sexual activities. An alternative explanation for the findings is also discussed.

The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section B, 1992

Sexual experience increases the response of males to stimuli provided by female conspecifics in a... more Sexual experience increases the response of males to stimuli provided by female conspecifics in a variety of species. The mechanisms of learning involved in this type of phenomenon were explored in two experiments with Japanese quail. The results indicated that instrumental conditioning with copulatory opportunity is not necessary for the acquisition of responding to female cues, and responding is not facilitated by learning about the location of the female. However, the response of males to female stimuli (as well as to arbitrary stimuli associated with access to a female) was enhanced by the presence of sexually conditioned contextual cues. Substantial levels of responding also occurred to female stimuli in a context where the subjects never encountered a female quail before. This latter outcome is consistent with the possibility that stimuli from a female become directly associated with sexual reinforcement during the course of sexual experience. Similar forms of learning may be ...

Physiology & Behavior, 1991

The hypothesis was tested that animals exposed to a potentially dangerous endotoxin would attempt... more The hypothesis was tested that animals exposed to a potentially dangerous endotoxin would attempt to behaviorally elevate their body temperature, perhaps in an effort to engage those immunological mechanisms which would counter the adverse effects of the endotoxin. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Escherichia coli injected subcutaneously (100 micrograms) in adult C57BL/6J mice increased gradient temperature preference by 2.4 degrees C over saline controls. The increase in body temperature of 1.1 degrees C after LPS injection was due to the preference for higher ambient temperatures and was not the result of a systemic reaction to LPS (animals not exposed to the gradient did not differ in body temperature). In summary, our data indicate that adult mice self-induce a febrile response, perhaps as an attempt to compensate for the physiological impact of the endotoxin.

Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 1998

Imitative learning has been difficult to demonstrate in animals, partly because techniques have n... more Imitative learning has been difficult to demonstrate in animals, partly because techniques have not adequately ruled out alternative accounts based on motivational and perceptual mechanisms (Zentall, 1996). Recently, it has been proposed that differences in the effects of observation of two very different response topographies would rule out such artifactual, alternative accounts (Akins & Zentall, 1996). In the present research, we confirmed that strong evidence for imitation can be found in Japanese quail, and that such imitation requires the imitator's observation of reinforced responding by the demonstrator. Thus, under the present conditions, it appears that an observer will imitate a demonstrated response only if it also observes the appetitive consequences of that response.

Poultry Science, 1993

The copulatory behavior of sexually experienced male Japanese quail was tested using taxidermic m... more The copulatory behavior of sexually experienced male Japanese quail was tested using taxidermic models with varying proportions of natural and artificial features. Completely artificial models exerted little control over copulatory behavior, and whole natural body models reliably elicited copulatory behavior. In single model presentation tests, a model containing a natural head and neck with an artificial body was as effective in eliciting copulatory behavior as a whole body model, but a model containing a natural body with an artificial head and neck was largely ineffective. In choice tests, however, males clearly preferred a whole model over a natural head and neck model, and a natural body model over a completely artificial model. These data indicate male Japanese quail do attend to features of body plumage. Furthermore, test procedures can influence conclusions about effective controlling stimuli.

Physiology & Behavior, 2007

Chronic cocaine administration typically results in increased locomotor activity, known as behavi... more Chronic cocaine administration typically results in increased locomotor activity, known as behavioral sensitization. Investigating the time course of locomotor activity across trials may provide a more detailed analysis of the temporal changes that might occur within sensitization. Prior research with rodents shows that the peak of locomotor activity shifts from acute to chronic drug administration. The purpose of the current experiment was to investigate acute versus chronic cocaine effects on locomotor activity in an avian species, Japanese quail, and to investigate whether this phenomenon is dose dependent. Subjects received daily ip injections of saline or 5, 10, or 20 mg/kg cocaine for 20 days. Following each injection, birds were placed in standard locomotor activity chambers, and activity was recorded for 150 min. A cocaine challenge was given after a ten-day withdrawal period. Two retraining trials were given to reestablish cocaine responding prior to a saline challenge in the drug-paired environment. Results showed that repeated administration of the 10 mg/kg dose of cocaine enhanced activity across 120 min compared with acute administration. In contrast, repeated administration of the 20 mg/kg dose resulted in greater cocaine-induced activity for 60 min compared with acute administration. In addition, behavioral sensitization was shown to be dose-dependent and appeared to be due, at least in part, to conditioning.