Edward Deci - Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by Edward Deci
Self-Regulation and Autonomy
Oxford Handbooks Online, 2013
A key proposition of self-determination theory (SDT) is that human beings have deeply evolved psy... more A key proposition of self-determination theory (SDT) is that human beings have deeply evolved psychological needs to be competent, autonomous, and related to others. In contexts where these needs are satisfied, people evidence more volitional, high-quality motivation and greater well-being. Conversely, when these needs are thwarted, people display diminished motivation and more symptoms of ill-being. This article addresses how the SDT concept of basic psychological needs differs from needs concepts in other psychological and management theories; provides empirical evidence for the validity of our approach; relates need satisfaction to autonomous motivation (i.e., intrinsic motivation and fully internalized extrinsic motivation) and controlled motivation (i.e., external and introjected forms of extrinsic motivation); explains how need satisfaction versus thwarting affects engagement and effective performance; examines how social environments, personality characteristics, and people’s long-term goals affect satisfaction versus thwarting of their basic psychological needs; and then discusses the relevance of these issues for management.
Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior, 1985
Early in this century, American psychology rallied around the study of overt behavior, as had bee... more Early in this century, American psychology rallied around the study of overt behavior, as had been suggested by Thorndike (1913) and Watson (1913). This perspective, which had its roots in the philosophy of logical positivism, demanded the use of operational definitions that were specified in terms of overt, observable behaviors. The most influential spokesperson for this position was undoubtedly Skinner (e.g., 1938), who proposed and elaborated an operant theory of behavior. Although the perspective is no longer as central to empirical psychology as it once was, there are still a number of psychologists who subscribe to a relatively orthodox operant perspective, and the field of applied behavior modification is firmly rooted in operant theory.
Self-Regulation and Autonomy
Review of Educational Research, 1996
Cameron and Pierce’s (1994) conclusion that rewards do not pose a threat to intrinsic motivation ... more Cameron and Pierce’s (1994) conclusion that rewards do not pose a threat to intrinsic motivation is a misrepresentation of the literature based on a flawed meta-analysis. Their call to abandon cognitive evaluation theory is more an attempt to defend their behaviorist theoretical turf than a meaningful consideration of the relevant data and issues.
Page 1. Handbook of Self-Deterininalion Research Edward LDcci and Richard M. Ryan Page 2. Page 3.... more Page 1. Handbook of Self-Deterininalion Research Edward LDcci and Richard M. Ryan Page 2. Page 3. Handbook of Self-Determination Research Page 4. Page 5. Handbook of Self-Determination Research Edited by Edward ...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1989
The relevance of general medicine at German universities will increase over the next few years. C... more The relevance of general medicine at German universities will increase over the next few years. Consequently, the discussion of teaching con-Jörg Schelling 1 Susanne Braun 2 tent and even more the improvement of the structures within the still small and dependent departments of general medicine are of major importance. The example of our department at LMU Munich shows
Personality & social psychology bulletin, 2017
In this research, we showed that solitude generally has a deactivation effect on people's aff... more In this research, we showed that solitude generally has a deactivation effect on people's affective experiences, decreasing both positive and negative high-arousal affects. In Study 1, we found that the deactivation effect occurred when people were alone, but not when they were with another person. Study 2 showed that this deactivation effect did not depend on whether or not the person was engaged in an activity such as reading when alone. In Study 3, high-arousal positive affect did not drop in a solitude condition in which participants specifically engaged in positive thinking or when they actively chose what to think about. Finally, in Study 4, we found that solitude could lead to relaxation and reduced stress when individuals actively chose to be alone. This research thus shed light on solitude effects in the past literature, and on people's experiences when alone and the different factors that moderate these effects.
Health education research, Dec 1, 2016
A pragmatic comparative effectiveness trial examined whether extending the duration of a cost-eff... more A pragmatic comparative effectiveness trial examined whether extending the duration of a cost-effective, intensive tobacco-dependence intervention designed to support autonomy will facilitate long-term tobacco abstinence. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three tobacco-dependence interventions based on self-determination theory, namely, Intensive Treatment (IT; six contacts over 6 months), Extended Need Support (ENS; eight contacts over 12 months) and Harm Reduction (HR; eight contacts over 12 months with medication use if willing to reduce cigarette use by half). Among participants who completed the interventions, analyses revealed beneficial effects of ENS (15.7 versus 3.8%; χ (2)(1) = 6.92, P < 0.01) and HR (13.6 versus 3.8%; χ (2)(1) = 5.26, P < 0.05), relative to IT, on 12-month prolonged abstinence from tobacco. Also, analyses revealed beneficial effects of ENS (77.7 versus 43.0%; χ (2)(1) = 24.90, P < 0.001) and HR (84.0 versus 43.0%; χ (2)(1) = 37.41, P ...
Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior, 1985
Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 2014
The duration and quality of human performance depend on both intrinsic motivation and external in... more The duration and quality of human performance depend on both intrinsic motivation and external incentives. However, little is known about the neuroscientific basis of this interplay between internal and external motivators. Here, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine the neural substrates of intrinsic motivation, operationalized as the free-choice time spent on a task when this was not required, and tested the neural and behavioral effects of external reward on intrinsic motivation. We found that increased duration of free-choice time was predicted by generally diminished neural responses in regions associated with cognitive and affective regulation. By comparison, the possibility of additional reward improved task accuracy, and specifically increased neural and behavioral responses following errors. Those individuals with the smallest neural responses associated with intrinsic motivation exhibited the greatest error-related neural enhancement under the external contingency of possible reward. Together, these data suggest that human performance is guided by a "tonic" and "phasic" relationship between the neural substrates of intrinsic motivation (tonic) and the impact of external incentives (phasic). Keywords Intrinsic motivation. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Internal and external incentives. Neural substrates. Behavioral performance The nature of human motivation has long intrigued scientists and practitioners in the areas of decision-making (Kahneman
The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2010
Most research on the psychological correlates of smoking behavior has focused on negative indices... more Most research on the psychological correlates of smoking behavior has focused on negative indices of wellness, but findings are mixed, contradictory, controversial, and, thus, inconclusive. This study, guided by self-determination theory, examined both positive (viz., vitality) and negative (viz., depressive symptoms) indices of psychological health as predictors of long-term tobacco abstinence in the context of a randomized clinical trial. It also examined autonomous self-regulation and cigarette use as predictors of psychological health. Results supported the proposed conditional indirect effect model in which change in cigarette use mediated the relation of change in autonomous self-regulation for smoking cessation to change in vitality, and this indirect effect was moderated by treatment condition. Further, change in vitality predicted long-term tobacco abstinence. Results for depressive symptoms were largely null. Discussion focuses on the importance of considering positive indices of psychological health for understanding the psychological correlates of smoking behavior.
Review of Educational Research, 2001
The finding that extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation has been highly controversi... more The finding that extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation has been highly controversial since it first appeared ( Deci, 1971 ). A meta-analysis published in this journal (Cameron & Pierce, 1994) concluded that the undermining effect was minimal and largely inconsequential for educational policy. However, a more recent meta-analysis (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999 ) showed that the Cameron and Pierce meta-analysis was seriously flawed and that its conclusions were incorrect. This article briefly reviews the results of the more recent meta-analysis, which showed that tangible rewards do indeed have a substantial undermining effect. The meta-analysis provided strong support for cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1980), which Cameron and Pierce had advocated abandoning. The results are briefly discussed in terms of their relevance for educational practice.
Review of Educational Research, 2001
Our meta-analysis (this issue) clarified when rewards undermine, leave unchanged, and enhance int... more Our meta-analysis (this issue) clarified when rewards undermine, leave unchanged, and enhance intrinsic motivation and pointed out flaws in Cameron and Pierce’s (1994) meta-analysis. Cameron’s (2001) commentary did not reveal any problems with our meta-analysis, nor did it defend the validity of Cameron and Pierce’s. Instead, Cameron referred to a fourth meta-analysis by her group; little detail was presented about the new meta-analysis, but it appears to have the same types of errors as the first three. Cameron also presented a new theoretical account of reward effects—the fourth by her group, which sequentially abandoned the previous ones as they were found wanting. Cameron concluded again that there is no reason to avoid using performance-contingent rewards in educational settings, yet her application of the research results to education lacks ecological validity.
Psychological Bulletin, 1999
A meta-analysis of 128 studies examined the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation.... more A meta-analysis of 128 studies examined the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. As predicted, engagement-contingent, completion-contingent, and performance-contingent rewards significantly undermined free-choice intrinsic motivation (d =-0.40,-0.36, and-0.28, respectively), as did all rewards, all tangible rewards, and all expected rewards. Engagement-contingent and completioncontingent rewards also significantly undermined self-reported interest (d =-0.15, and-0.17), as did all tangible rewards and all expected rewards. Positive feedback enhanced both free-choice behavior (d = 0.33) and self-reported interest (d = 0.31). Tangible rewards tended to be more detrimental for children than college students, and verbal rewards tended to be less enhancing for children than college students. The authors review 4 previous meta-analyses of this literature and detail how this study's methods, analyses, and results differed from the previous ones.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2011
Five studies examined whether quality of motivation (as individual differences and primed) facili... more Five studies examined whether quality of motivation (as individual differences and primed) facilitates or thwarts integration of positive and negative past identities. Specifically, more autonomously motivated participants felt closer to, and were more accepting of, both negative and positive past characteristics and central life events, whereas more control-motivated participants were closer to and more accepting of positive, but not negative, past characteristics and events. Notably, controlled motivation hindered participants' acceptance of their own negative identities but not of others' negative identities, suggesting that control-motivated individuals' rejection of negative past identities was an attempt to distance from undesirable parts of themselves. Defensive processes, reflected in nonpersonal pronouns and escape motives, mediated interaction effects, indicating that lower defense allowed fuller integration. Integration of both positive and negative past identities predicted indicators of well-being, namely, vitality, meaning, and relatedness satisfaction.
Self-Regulation and Autonomy
Oxford Handbooks Online, 2013
A key proposition of self-determination theory (SDT) is that human beings have deeply evolved psy... more A key proposition of self-determination theory (SDT) is that human beings have deeply evolved psychological needs to be competent, autonomous, and related to others. In contexts where these needs are satisfied, people evidence more volitional, high-quality motivation and greater well-being. Conversely, when these needs are thwarted, people display diminished motivation and more symptoms of ill-being. This article addresses how the SDT concept of basic psychological needs differs from needs concepts in other psychological and management theories; provides empirical evidence for the validity of our approach; relates need satisfaction to autonomous motivation (i.e., intrinsic motivation and fully internalized extrinsic motivation) and controlled motivation (i.e., external and introjected forms of extrinsic motivation); explains how need satisfaction versus thwarting affects engagement and effective performance; examines how social environments, personality characteristics, and people’s long-term goals affect satisfaction versus thwarting of their basic psychological needs; and then discusses the relevance of these issues for management.
Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior, 1985
Early in this century, American psychology rallied around the study of overt behavior, as had bee... more Early in this century, American psychology rallied around the study of overt behavior, as had been suggested by Thorndike (1913) and Watson (1913). This perspective, which had its roots in the philosophy of logical positivism, demanded the use of operational definitions that were specified in terms of overt, observable behaviors. The most influential spokesperson for this position was undoubtedly Skinner (e.g., 1938), who proposed and elaborated an operant theory of behavior. Although the perspective is no longer as central to empirical psychology as it once was, there are still a number of psychologists who subscribe to a relatively orthodox operant perspective, and the field of applied behavior modification is firmly rooted in operant theory.
Self-Regulation and Autonomy
Review of Educational Research, 1996
Cameron and Pierce’s (1994) conclusion that rewards do not pose a threat to intrinsic motivation ... more Cameron and Pierce’s (1994) conclusion that rewards do not pose a threat to intrinsic motivation is a misrepresentation of the literature based on a flawed meta-analysis. Their call to abandon cognitive evaluation theory is more an attempt to defend their behaviorist theoretical turf than a meaningful consideration of the relevant data and issues.
Page 1. Handbook of Self-Deterininalion Research Edward LDcci and Richard M. Ryan Page 2. Page 3.... more Page 1. Handbook of Self-Deterininalion Research Edward LDcci and Richard M. Ryan Page 2. Page 3. Handbook of Self-Determination Research Page 4. Page 5. Handbook of Self-Determination Research Edited by Edward ...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1989
The relevance of general medicine at German universities will increase over the next few years. C... more The relevance of general medicine at German universities will increase over the next few years. Consequently, the discussion of teaching con-Jörg Schelling 1 Susanne Braun 2 tent and even more the improvement of the structures within the still small and dependent departments of general medicine are of major importance. The example of our department at LMU Munich shows
Personality & social psychology bulletin, 2017
In this research, we showed that solitude generally has a deactivation effect on people's aff... more In this research, we showed that solitude generally has a deactivation effect on people's affective experiences, decreasing both positive and negative high-arousal affects. In Study 1, we found that the deactivation effect occurred when people were alone, but not when they were with another person. Study 2 showed that this deactivation effect did not depend on whether or not the person was engaged in an activity such as reading when alone. In Study 3, high-arousal positive affect did not drop in a solitude condition in which participants specifically engaged in positive thinking or when they actively chose what to think about. Finally, in Study 4, we found that solitude could lead to relaxation and reduced stress when individuals actively chose to be alone. This research thus shed light on solitude effects in the past literature, and on people's experiences when alone and the different factors that moderate these effects.
Health education research, Dec 1, 2016
A pragmatic comparative effectiveness trial examined whether extending the duration of a cost-eff... more A pragmatic comparative effectiveness trial examined whether extending the duration of a cost-effective, intensive tobacco-dependence intervention designed to support autonomy will facilitate long-term tobacco abstinence. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three tobacco-dependence interventions based on self-determination theory, namely, Intensive Treatment (IT; six contacts over 6 months), Extended Need Support (ENS; eight contacts over 12 months) and Harm Reduction (HR; eight contacts over 12 months with medication use if willing to reduce cigarette use by half). Among participants who completed the interventions, analyses revealed beneficial effects of ENS (15.7 versus 3.8%; χ (2)(1) = 6.92, P < 0.01) and HR (13.6 versus 3.8%; χ (2)(1) = 5.26, P < 0.05), relative to IT, on 12-month prolonged abstinence from tobacco. Also, analyses revealed beneficial effects of ENS (77.7 versus 43.0%; χ (2)(1) = 24.90, P < 0.001) and HR (84.0 versus 43.0%; χ (2)(1) = 37.41, P ...
Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior, 1985
Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 2014
The duration and quality of human performance depend on both intrinsic motivation and external in... more The duration and quality of human performance depend on both intrinsic motivation and external incentives. However, little is known about the neuroscientific basis of this interplay between internal and external motivators. Here, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine the neural substrates of intrinsic motivation, operationalized as the free-choice time spent on a task when this was not required, and tested the neural and behavioral effects of external reward on intrinsic motivation. We found that increased duration of free-choice time was predicted by generally diminished neural responses in regions associated with cognitive and affective regulation. By comparison, the possibility of additional reward improved task accuracy, and specifically increased neural and behavioral responses following errors. Those individuals with the smallest neural responses associated with intrinsic motivation exhibited the greatest error-related neural enhancement under the external contingency of possible reward. Together, these data suggest that human performance is guided by a "tonic" and "phasic" relationship between the neural substrates of intrinsic motivation (tonic) and the impact of external incentives (phasic). Keywords Intrinsic motivation. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Internal and external incentives. Neural substrates. Behavioral performance The nature of human motivation has long intrigued scientists and practitioners in the areas of decision-making (Kahneman
The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2010
Most research on the psychological correlates of smoking behavior has focused on negative indices... more Most research on the psychological correlates of smoking behavior has focused on negative indices of wellness, but findings are mixed, contradictory, controversial, and, thus, inconclusive. This study, guided by self-determination theory, examined both positive (viz., vitality) and negative (viz., depressive symptoms) indices of psychological health as predictors of long-term tobacco abstinence in the context of a randomized clinical trial. It also examined autonomous self-regulation and cigarette use as predictors of psychological health. Results supported the proposed conditional indirect effect model in which change in cigarette use mediated the relation of change in autonomous self-regulation for smoking cessation to change in vitality, and this indirect effect was moderated by treatment condition. Further, change in vitality predicted long-term tobacco abstinence. Results for depressive symptoms were largely null. Discussion focuses on the importance of considering positive indices of psychological health for understanding the psychological correlates of smoking behavior.
Review of Educational Research, 2001
The finding that extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation has been highly controversi... more The finding that extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation has been highly controversial since it first appeared ( Deci, 1971 ). A meta-analysis published in this journal (Cameron & Pierce, 1994) concluded that the undermining effect was minimal and largely inconsequential for educational policy. However, a more recent meta-analysis (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999 ) showed that the Cameron and Pierce meta-analysis was seriously flawed and that its conclusions were incorrect. This article briefly reviews the results of the more recent meta-analysis, which showed that tangible rewards do indeed have a substantial undermining effect. The meta-analysis provided strong support for cognitive evaluation theory (Deci & Ryan, 1980), which Cameron and Pierce had advocated abandoning. The results are briefly discussed in terms of their relevance for educational practice.
Review of Educational Research, 2001
Our meta-analysis (this issue) clarified when rewards undermine, leave unchanged, and enhance int... more Our meta-analysis (this issue) clarified when rewards undermine, leave unchanged, and enhance intrinsic motivation and pointed out flaws in Cameron and Pierce’s (1994) meta-analysis. Cameron’s (2001) commentary did not reveal any problems with our meta-analysis, nor did it defend the validity of Cameron and Pierce’s. Instead, Cameron referred to a fourth meta-analysis by her group; little detail was presented about the new meta-analysis, but it appears to have the same types of errors as the first three. Cameron also presented a new theoretical account of reward effects—the fourth by her group, which sequentially abandoned the previous ones as they were found wanting. Cameron concluded again that there is no reason to avoid using performance-contingent rewards in educational settings, yet her application of the research results to education lacks ecological validity.
Psychological Bulletin, 1999
A meta-analysis of 128 studies examined the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation.... more A meta-analysis of 128 studies examined the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. As predicted, engagement-contingent, completion-contingent, and performance-contingent rewards significantly undermined free-choice intrinsic motivation (d =-0.40,-0.36, and-0.28, respectively), as did all rewards, all tangible rewards, and all expected rewards. Engagement-contingent and completioncontingent rewards also significantly undermined self-reported interest (d =-0.15, and-0.17), as did all tangible rewards and all expected rewards. Positive feedback enhanced both free-choice behavior (d = 0.33) and self-reported interest (d = 0.31). Tangible rewards tended to be more detrimental for children than college students, and verbal rewards tended to be less enhancing for children than college students. The authors review 4 previous meta-analyses of this literature and detail how this study's methods, analyses, and results differed from the previous ones.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2011
Five studies examined whether quality of motivation (as individual differences and primed) facili... more Five studies examined whether quality of motivation (as individual differences and primed) facilitates or thwarts integration of positive and negative past identities. Specifically, more autonomously motivated participants felt closer to, and were more accepting of, both negative and positive past characteristics and central life events, whereas more control-motivated participants were closer to and more accepting of positive, but not negative, past characteristics and events. Notably, controlled motivation hindered participants' acceptance of their own negative identities but not of others' negative identities, suggesting that control-motivated individuals' rejection of negative past identities was an attempt to distance from undesirable parts of themselves. Defensive processes, reflected in nonpersonal pronouns and escape motives, mediated interaction effects, indicating that lower defense allowed fuller integration. Integration of both positive and negative past identities predicted indicators of well-being, namely, vitality, meaning, and relatedness satisfaction.