Elijah Wanda - Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by Elijah Wanda
International journal of scientific and research publications, Jun 24, 2023
Physics And Chemistry Of The Earth, Parts A/b/c, 2011
The obligation to ensure adequate potable water supply to everyone, has necessitated the developm... more The obligation to ensure adequate potable water supply to everyone, has necessitated the development of groundwater resources for reliable rural water supply in most developing countries. An understanding of spatial variation and processes affecting water quality is essential in sustaining usable water supplies under changing climate and local environmental pressures. In this study, an assessment of quality and dominant hydro-geochemical processes affecting the quality of groundwater from weathered basement aquifers in Mzimba district, Northern Malawi, has been conducted. Groundwater samples were collected from 172 hand-pumped boreholes, drilled for domestic rural water supply and analysed for major and minor ions, pH and total dissolved solids (TDS). In general, groundwater is of low mineralisation (TDS range: 29-1896 mg L À1 for the dry season), with hydro-geochemical facies dominated by Ca-HCO 3 , which evolves to Ca-Cl water type. Multivariate statistical analysis (HCA and PCA) and geochemical interpretation showed that the Ca-HCO 3 groundwater type result from hydrolysis of silicate minerals, which causes the solution to reach equilibrium with kaolinite. The processes of cation exchange of Na + and K + in the groundwater for Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ on clay minerals, carbonate precipitation and evaporation, are shown to modify the chemical composition from Ca-HCO 3 types to Ca-Cl types. Groundwater is generally of good quality in both rainy and dry seasons, with little seasonal changes. The United States Salinity Laboratory Staff and Wilcox diagrams showed that most samples were also suitable for irrigation except for 4% (eight samples) of the groundwater samples (with EC > 2000 lS cm À1). These are located in alluviums and colluviums localised near river banks and in inter hill valleys.
Malawi Journal of Science and Technology, Dec 1, 2020
World human population has grown very rapidly in the past century. In Malawi"s Capital City (Lilo... more World human population has grown very rapidly in the past century. In Malawi"s Capital City (Lilongwe) it increased by more than 3000% between 1966 and 2008 (from 19,425 to 674,448). Such rapid population growth might contribute to Land Use and Land Cover Changes (LULCC) due to pressure on land resources to meet diverse livelihoods, which in turn significantly affects the flow of water in river catchments. This study was thus conducted to evaluate LULCC in Lilongwe between 1989 and 2004 in view of the exponential population increase, and to assess the effects of LULCC on the streamflow of Lilongwe River. To evaluate LULCC, change detection analysis was carried out on Landsat imagery of the Lilongwe River catchment for the years 1989 and 2004. Data on land cover classifications, soil, rainfall, temperature, elevation and water reservoir levels in the catchment were modelled using the Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) to assess the effects of LULCC on streamflow in Lilongwe River. Results showed that between 1989 to 2004, a 10.7% decrease in forest cover occurred (from 63,112.6 ha to 51,034.3 ha). Furthermore, there was an increase in cropland (8.6%, from 19,249 ha to 28,911.3 ha), and a 3.5% increase in land use for settlement (from 23,535.9 ha to 27,526 ha). The resultant changes in average monthly streamflow were-0.058 m 3 /s during the dry season (August-November) and +1.432 m 3 /s during the wet season (December-March). The results establish the link between LULCC and streamflow in the catchment. Integrated catchment management practices are therefore recommended to ensure that further LULCC does not adversely affect streamflow in Lilongwe River, and the livelihoods of its beneficiaries
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C
Wastewater production and treatment in Malawi In Malawi, wastewater is generated throughout the c... more Wastewater production and treatment in Malawi In Malawi, wastewater is generated throughout the country i.e. both in rural and urban centres. Wastewater generation has increased due to increase in population, urbanisation and industrialisation. Wastewater treatment works are done in cities of (1) Blantyre at Blantyre, Soche, and Limbe, (2) Lilongwe at Kauma, (3) Zomba at Chikanda and (4) Mzuzu at Moyale. These have offsite sewage systems but only 15% of the population is connected to waterborne sewerage and 15% to septic tanks (National Environmental Action Plan, 1994). The dominant treatment types are the primary and secondary type which mainly removes just about 30% of the organic wastes and 50% of suspended solids and bacteria. Sewage system break down, sewer lines blockages occur due to poor maintenance, improper design of some sections, and also lack of public awareness on use of the sewerage systems (Agrifor Consult, 2006). Lack of adequate waste water treatment causes severe ...
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 2013
In Malawi, shallow wells constitute the most important water sources for domestic purposes. Howev... more In Malawi, shallow wells constitute the most important water sources for domestic purposes. However, increasing human population coupled with poor sanitation and infrastructure is undermining the quality of shallow well water. An assessment of microbial and geochemical quality of shallow well water in highdensity areas of Zolozolo, Ching'ambo and Chiputula in Mzuzu City, Northern Malawi, has been carried out. The study aimed at characterising domestic water sources, identifying possible sources of water contamination and determining levels of microbial and chemical contamination. Arc-view GIS was used to map the water sources. A questionnaire survey was carried out to elicit information on characteristics of drinking water sources. Water samples were collected from quasi-randomly selected shallow wells and analysed for microbial and chemical parameters using standard methods. HCA, performed using Rprogramme, was used to group sampled sites according to their bio-physicochemical characteristics. Compliance of the water with MBS/WHO water quality guidelines was determined. The WQI was computed to turn multifaceted data obtained from laboratory analyses into simple information that is comprehensible and useable by the public to assess overall quality of water at a specific water points. The GW-chart was used to show hydrogeochemical water types from each sampled site. Microbial analysis revealed that water from 96.3% of shallow wells recorded faecal coliforms ranging from 129 to 920 cfu per 100 ml which were significantly higher than the Malawi Standards and WHO thresholds. In general, shallow well water is of low mineralisation (EC range 80-500 lS cm À1), with hydrogeochemical facies dominated by Ca-HCO 3 , which evolves to Ca-Cl water type. The shallow well water registered a WQI range of 50.16-66.04%, with a medium WQ rating. This suggested that the water obtained from the shallow wells is unsuitable for direct human consumption. It was observed that 100% of the shallow wells were at risk of pollution from onsite sanitation because of their proximity to sanitary facilities. It was strongly recommended that onsite treatment interventions have to be mobilised and initiated to protect the households from further possible consequences of using the water.
Waterlines, 2014
Private sector participation in sanitation marketing provides a great opportunity to improve rura... more Private sector participation in sanitation marketing provides a great opportunity to improve rural sanitation access. Although a number of opportunities for private sector participation within the sanitation sector exist, there are numerous barriers and threats to taking up sanitation as a business. This Note from the Field identifies these opportunities, barriers, and threats in Nkhata Bay District, a rural area of Malawi. These insights emerge from a wider research project entitled 'Private sector participation in the delivery of sanitation and hygiene services'. This note provides background information on the research project on private sector participation and the project location. It goes on to describe the data collection process and present two examples of business activities in the district sanitation sector, before listing the opportunities, barriers, and threats identified and the recommendations that emerge from them.
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 2013
ABSTRACT Irrigation water quality is an essential component of sustainable agriculture. Irrigatio... more ABSTRACT Irrigation water quality is an essential component of sustainable agriculture. Irrigation water quality concerns have often been neglected over concerns of quantity in most irrigation projects in Malawi. In this study, a hydrochemical assessment of groundwater was carried out to characterize, classify groundwater and evaluate its suitability for irrigation use in Karonga and Rumphi districts, Northern Malawi. Groundwater samples were collected during wet (January–April 2011) and dry (July–September 2011) seasons from 107 shallow wells and boreholes drilled for rural water supply using standard sampling procedures. The water samples were analysed for pH, major ions, total dissolved solids and electrical conductivity (EC), using standard methods. Multivariate chemometric (such as Kruskal Wallis test), hydrographical methods (i.e. Piper diagram) and PHREEQC geochemical modelling program were used to characterise the groundwater quality. Electrical conductivity, percentage sodium ion (% Na+), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), total dissolved solids (TDS), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), Kelly’s ratio (KR) and permeability index (PI) were used to evaluate the suitability of water for irrigation. It was established that groundwater is neutral to alkaline and mostly freshwater (TDS < 1000 mg/l) of Ca-HCO3- type. Groundwater is of low mineralisation which did not show statistically significant variations with respect to depth of shallow wells and boreholes, location and seasonality at 5% significance level. Groundwater from Karonga District was largely oversaturated with respect to both calcite and dolomite, where as that from Rumphi District was undersaturated with respect to both calcite and dolomite. However, the calculated PCO2 values suggested that the groundwater system was open to soil CO2 and that there was possibility of degassing of CO2 during flow, which could increase the pH and subsequently result in the oversaturation of calcite in both districts. Groundwater water samples were stable towards calcite and kaolinite stability field. This suggested that equilibrium of the groundwater with silicates is an important indicator of the hydrogeochemical processes behind groundwater quality in the study area. The calculated values of SAR, KR and % Na+ indicated good and permissible quality of water for irrigation uses. However, samples with doubtful RSC (6% from Karonga district), unsuitable PI (5% and 3% from Karonga and Rumphi, respectively) and a high salinity hazard (56.2% and 20.3% from Karonga and Rumphi, respectively) values restrict the suitability of the groundwater for agricultural purposes, and plants with good salt tolerance should be selected for such groundwaters. A detailed hydro-geochemical investigation and integrated water management is suggested for sustainable development of the water resources for better plant growth, long-term as well as maintaining human health in the study area.
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 2012
ABSTRACT Literature on water supply and coverage is mixed about whether Malawi will achieve the M... more ABSTRACT Literature on water supply and coverage is mixed about whether Malawi will achieve the MDGs by 2015. Mzuzu City is one of the most rapidly growing urban areas that is faced with public water supply and coverage challenges in Malawi. In view of this, an appraisal was done through documentation review, field visits and face to face interviews in order to evaluate problems of public water supply and coverage. It was observed that inequitable distribution of water points, unreliability of the water supply services and financial losses are some of the problems affecting public water supply in Mzuzu City. The financial losses were attributed to poor financial performance resulting from accrued debts by some individual customers and most government institutions, the board's reliance on loans for expansion of services which has led into more revenue being spent servicing the loan and accrued interests, and high levels of unaccounted for water. This study found out that only 17% of the study population has piped water in their dwelling homes and yards. It was also observed that 51% of the population accesses the water from community stand pipes supplied by the NRWB. This means that only 68% of the study population in Mzuzu City (mostly those from planned settlements) is covered by NRWB and 32% is not covered and relies on boreholes (13.6%), unprotected wells (16.5%) and rivers (1.9%) as sources of water. The percentage composition of the population not covered by NRWB is of great concern and threat to public health and safety. The study recommends that NRWB should ensure that available funds, which would otherwise have been paid out in form of interest, are used on projects in phases to improve water supply and coverage in Mzuzu City. The study also recommends that the government of Malawi should consider converting the NRWB's loans into grants in order to alleviate the NRWB's financial losses. Furthermore, the study recommends that the NRWB should equitably increase its customer base.
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 2012
ABSTRACT An assessment of characteristics and chemical water quality index (WQI) of water supplie... more ABSTRACT An assessment of characteristics and chemical water quality index (WQI) of water supplied by the Northern Region water Board (NRWB) in Mzuzu City was carried out in order to ascertain the quality of water for domestic purposes. The WQI offers a single number that expresses overall water quality for a water sample based on several water quality parameters. In this study raw water and 72 tap water samples were collected monthly between March and September, 2011 and analyzed for major ions, pH, total dissolved solids (TDSs), electrical conductivity (EC), turbidity, total hardness (TH), suspended solids (SSs) and alkalinity using standard methods. The quality and accuracy of the chemical data was assessed by checking electrical balances. The calculated electrical balance errors were found to be less than ±10%, which meant the results were reliable. Based on the Sawyer and McCarty TH classification, 100% of the samples were soft waters (TH < 150 mg/L). Nitrates, which registered medium or average WQ-rating of 69.77 and WQ-rating range of 52.06-86.94, were observed to have significantly affected the overall water quality index of the treated water since the rest of the parameters registered good-excellent WQ-ratings (average WQ-rating: 80.21-97.87). The pH, which is used to determine suitability of water for various purposes, ranged between 6.40 and 6.90 and registered a good water quality rating (WQ rating range: 72.73-87.02) for both raw and treated water. Raw water registered an overall medium water quality rating of 62.67%. Overall, 91.67% of the samples registered a good water quality rating (WQI range: 80.28-88.80%) and 8.33% registered a very good water quality rating (WQI = 90.07%). The results suggested substantial water treatment by the NRWB since the treated water is protected with some negligible degree of impairment that rarely departs from desirable levels of domestic water quality. It is recommended that the WQI should be adopted as a tool to monitor and establish trends in quality of water supplied by the NRWB since it is a composite index that turns complex water quality data into an aggregate rating that reflects the combined influence on the overall water quality as opposed to the univariate water quality assessment approaches such as the Malawi Bureau of Standards.
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 2011
The obligation to ensure adequate potable water supply to everyone, has necessitated the developm... more The obligation to ensure adequate potable water supply to everyone, has necessitated the development of groundwater resources for reliable rural water supply in most developing countries. An understanding of spatial variation and processes affecting water quality is essential in sustaining usable water supplies under changing climate and local environmental pressures. In this study, an assessment of quality and dominant hydro-geochemical processes affecting the quality of groundwater from weathered basement aquifers in Mzimba district, Northern Malawi, has been conducted. Groundwater samples were collected from 172 hand-pumped boreholes, drilled for domestic rural water supply and analysed for major and minor ions, pH and total dissolved solids (TDS). In general, groundwater is of low mineralisation (TDS range: 29-1896 mg L À1 for the dry season), with hydro-geochemical facies dominated by Ca-HCO 3 , which evolves to Ca-Cl water type. Multivariate statistical analysis (HCA and PCA) and geochemical interpretation showed that the Ca-HCO 3 groundwater type result from hydrolysis of silicate minerals, which causes the solution to reach equilibrium with kaolinite. The processes of cation exchange of Na + and K + in the groundwater for Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ on clay minerals, carbonate precipitation and evaporation, are shown to modify the chemical composition from Ca-HCO 3 types to Ca-Cl types. Groundwater is generally of good quality in both rainy and dry seasons, with little seasonal changes. The United States Salinity Laboratory Staff and Wilcox diagrams showed that most samples were also suitable for irrigation except for 4% (eight samples) of the groundwater samples (with EC > 2000 lS cm À1). These are located in alluviums and colluviums localised near river banks and in inter hill valleys.
This study was conducted to determine the effects of socio-demographic characteristics in relatio... more This study was conducted to determine the effects of socio-demographic characteristics in relation to access to improved pit latrine and desludging services in Area 1B, a peri-urban area of low-income settings in Mzuzu City, Northern Malawi. A total of 150 households were purposively sampled to assess the socio-demographic characteristics in terms of level of education, source of income and occupation in relation to the status of pit latrines. Data was analysed using SPSS version 16.0. The results revealed that 69% and 31% of the respondents had improved and unimproved pit latrines, respectively. The use of improved and unimproved type of pit latrines in Area 1B within Mzuzu City in Northern Malawi was attributed to the socio-demographic characteristics of households. Furthermore, the monthly income of the respondents revealed in the study cannot meet the costs of desludging services because it is far below the minimum service charge of one trip of a desludging truck. In order to pr...
Green analytical techniques refer to approaches that decrease or completely remove preservatives,... more Green analytical techniques refer to approaches that decrease or completely remove preservatives, reagents, solvents, and other substances that are dangerous to man and the environment or and that also have the capacity to enhance speed and produce energy-efficient chemical analyses without affecting the quality and the required level of performance of products. This chapter discusses basic principles of green environmental techniques which aim at reducing the impact of chemical activities on man and the environment. These basic principles include energy and water usage reduction, reagent and solvent usage reduction, minimal production of gaseous, liquid and solid, substances during analytical processes, instantaneous analysis for prevention of pollution and intrinsically safer chemistry for prevention of accidents, synthesis of less harmful chemicals, atom economy, prevention, catalysis, design of benign chemicals, use of solvents and auxiliaries that are safer, designing processes that are energy efficient, usage of renewable resources, derivative reduction, and planning for degradation. Emphasis on green separation techniques, green spectrophotometric techniques, basics of green analytical techniques, the problems associated with the formulation of ideologies of green analytical chemistry to existing analytical laboratories, as well as the evaluation of the impact on man and the environment have also been discussed in this chapter.
African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
Relatively few studies have explored how resilience of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) syste... more Relatively few studies have explored how resilience of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) systems to hazards can be enhanced under the current and future development and climatic challenges pressures in urban areas. This study employed the citizen science approach to build the capacity of citizens and integrate communities into scientific research on water quality and WASH related risk monitoring. Data was collected with assistance of 8 self-motivated and trained citizen science research counterparts. Standard sampling procedures were used to collect water samples from a total of 27 unsafe water sources in Karonga Town. The water samples were analysed for biological, physical and chemical parameters using standard methods. Personal observations were done to determine major sanitary risks impacting on a water sources in the town. It was observed that water from the majority of water samples collected from shallow wells, rivers/streams, lake and boreholes were highly contaminated with Escherichia coli, which were considerably higher than Malawi Bureau of Standards water quality specifications for drinking water. In general, the water is of low mineralization with rockwater interactions and surface pollution from anthropogenic activities such as agricultural activities and municipal wastes being responsible for input of biological, chemical and physical pollutants especially into the unlined and uncovered water sources. The results of the water quality index (WQI) and water quality (WQ) ratings indicated that water is not suitable for direct human consumption prior to treatment. It is recommended that onsite treatment and point of use water treatment interventions should be instituted and advocated to improve human health, livelihoods and to build resilience to WASH related risks and hazards in Karonga Town.
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C
Mzuzu Central Hospital wastewater oxidation ponds discharge effluent onto Lunyangwa River, but da... more Mzuzu Central Hospital wastewater oxidation ponds discharge effluent onto Lunyangwa River, but data on its performance is scant. It was thus imperative to assess the performance in terms of levels of pH, EC, TDS, phosphates, feacal coliforms, biological oxygen demand (BOD5) and total suspended solids (TSS) removal from the influent. Grab water samples were collected from the influent, facultative pond, effluent and upper, point of discharge and downstream of the discharge point. Levels of temperature, pH, EC, TDS were determined on site using HANNA instrument model H19812 pH-EC-TDS meter. Levels of BOD5 were determined using DO meter. Feacal coliforms were determined using dilution method. Nitrates and phosphates were determined spectrophotometrically, whereas TSS was determined gravimetrically. Data was analysed using Minitab version 17. The removal efficiencies of TSS, TDS, E.coli, nitrates and EC were observed to be 46.67%, 59.43%, 96.23%, 6.34% and 59.34%, respectively. Except f...
There remains a challenge of technically functional water sources in developing countries under t... more There remains a challenge of technically functional water sources in developing countries under the Millennium Development Goals not being used for a variety of reasons, including cost, traditional beliefs, convenience or politics. This paper presents a focus on self-supply at a newly developed water and sanitation focused centre, the Mzuzu SMART Centre. The SMART Centre concept aims at increasing the availability and functionality of water sources through increasing household ownership of low-cost systems and build-up of entrepreneurs. The primary self-supply, low-cost, technology at the Mzuzu SMART Centre is the Rope pump, a simple technology using locally available materials. It has shown great success. Encouragement of a focus on self-supply through a dedicated training centre may also be the best accompaniment towards improved household water sources in other areas of Southern Africa.
The paper identifies funding mechanisms for private sector participation and provision of rural h... more The paper identifies funding mechanisms for private sector participation and provision of rural household sanitation facilities, within Nkhata Bay District, Malawi.
Although emerging micro-pollutants are ubiquitous in drinking water systems, they remain unregula... more Although emerging micro-pollutants are ubiquitous in drinking water systems, they remain unregulated and unknown in terms of occurrence and distribution in time and space. The problem is compounded by their persistency, very small size and/or polarity which make it difficult for them to be removed by conventional treatment methods. This study was aimed at characterising emerging micro-pollutants (i.e. Bisphenol A (BPA), technical 4-nonylphenol (NP), caffeine (CAF), galaxolide (HHCB), tonalide (AHTN) and carbamazepine (CBZ)), modeling their occurrence and distribution, and synthesising N-CNTs/PES nanocomposite membranes for effective removal of emerging micropollutants in water systems in Mpumalanga, and Northwest provinces in South Africa. Water samples were collected from raw water, treated water and effluents using standard sampling procedures. The target compounds were extracted and enriched by solid phase extraction (SPE). The extracts were stored in SPE cartridges at -18 °C, un...
African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 2017
The study was carried out to understand the risks posed by earthquakes in Karonga based on roles ... more The study was carried out to understand the risks posed by earthquakes in Karonga based on roles and perception of stakeholders. Information was collected from several stakeholders who were found responding to earthquakes impacts in Karonga Town. The study found that several stakeholders, governmental and non-governmental department and organisation operate in Karonga District to respond to hazards and disasters that occur in the district however most of these stakeholders concentrate their activities in rural areas than the town despite having the town experiencing greater impacts from earthquake hazards. The study also found that people of Karonga are aware of earthquakes and how they can avoid their impacts however their economic status fail them from developing infrastructure that can help them to avoid or recover quickly from the impacts of earthquake disasters. It is therefore concluded that the people of Karonga town are vulnerable to earthquake hazards due to limited capacity to develop appropriate infrastructure that can survive seismic hazards.
International journal of scientific and research publications, Jun 24, 2023
Physics And Chemistry Of The Earth, Parts A/b/c, 2011
The obligation to ensure adequate potable water supply to everyone, has necessitated the developm... more The obligation to ensure adequate potable water supply to everyone, has necessitated the development of groundwater resources for reliable rural water supply in most developing countries. An understanding of spatial variation and processes affecting water quality is essential in sustaining usable water supplies under changing climate and local environmental pressures. In this study, an assessment of quality and dominant hydro-geochemical processes affecting the quality of groundwater from weathered basement aquifers in Mzimba district, Northern Malawi, has been conducted. Groundwater samples were collected from 172 hand-pumped boreholes, drilled for domestic rural water supply and analysed for major and minor ions, pH and total dissolved solids (TDS). In general, groundwater is of low mineralisation (TDS range: 29-1896 mg L À1 for the dry season), with hydro-geochemical facies dominated by Ca-HCO 3 , which evolves to Ca-Cl water type. Multivariate statistical analysis (HCA and PCA) and geochemical interpretation showed that the Ca-HCO 3 groundwater type result from hydrolysis of silicate minerals, which causes the solution to reach equilibrium with kaolinite. The processes of cation exchange of Na + and K + in the groundwater for Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ on clay minerals, carbonate precipitation and evaporation, are shown to modify the chemical composition from Ca-HCO 3 types to Ca-Cl types. Groundwater is generally of good quality in both rainy and dry seasons, with little seasonal changes. The United States Salinity Laboratory Staff and Wilcox diagrams showed that most samples were also suitable for irrigation except for 4% (eight samples) of the groundwater samples (with EC > 2000 lS cm À1). These are located in alluviums and colluviums localised near river banks and in inter hill valleys.
Malawi Journal of Science and Technology, Dec 1, 2020
World human population has grown very rapidly in the past century. In Malawi"s Capital City (Lilo... more World human population has grown very rapidly in the past century. In Malawi"s Capital City (Lilongwe) it increased by more than 3000% between 1966 and 2008 (from 19,425 to 674,448). Such rapid population growth might contribute to Land Use and Land Cover Changes (LULCC) due to pressure on land resources to meet diverse livelihoods, which in turn significantly affects the flow of water in river catchments. This study was thus conducted to evaluate LULCC in Lilongwe between 1989 and 2004 in view of the exponential population increase, and to assess the effects of LULCC on the streamflow of Lilongwe River. To evaluate LULCC, change detection analysis was carried out on Landsat imagery of the Lilongwe River catchment for the years 1989 and 2004. Data on land cover classifications, soil, rainfall, temperature, elevation and water reservoir levels in the catchment were modelled using the Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) to assess the effects of LULCC on streamflow in Lilongwe River. Results showed that between 1989 to 2004, a 10.7% decrease in forest cover occurred (from 63,112.6 ha to 51,034.3 ha). Furthermore, there was an increase in cropland (8.6%, from 19,249 ha to 28,911.3 ha), and a 3.5% increase in land use for settlement (from 23,535.9 ha to 27,526 ha). The resultant changes in average monthly streamflow were-0.058 m 3 /s during the dry season (August-November) and +1.432 m 3 /s during the wet season (December-March). The results establish the link between LULCC and streamflow in the catchment. Integrated catchment management practices are therefore recommended to ensure that further LULCC does not adversely affect streamflow in Lilongwe River, and the livelihoods of its beneficiaries
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C
Wastewater production and treatment in Malawi In Malawi, wastewater is generated throughout the c... more Wastewater production and treatment in Malawi In Malawi, wastewater is generated throughout the country i.e. both in rural and urban centres. Wastewater generation has increased due to increase in population, urbanisation and industrialisation. Wastewater treatment works are done in cities of (1) Blantyre at Blantyre, Soche, and Limbe, (2) Lilongwe at Kauma, (3) Zomba at Chikanda and (4) Mzuzu at Moyale. These have offsite sewage systems but only 15% of the population is connected to waterborne sewerage and 15% to septic tanks (National Environmental Action Plan, 1994). The dominant treatment types are the primary and secondary type which mainly removes just about 30% of the organic wastes and 50% of suspended solids and bacteria. Sewage system break down, sewer lines blockages occur due to poor maintenance, improper design of some sections, and also lack of public awareness on use of the sewerage systems (Agrifor Consult, 2006). Lack of adequate waste water treatment causes severe ...
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 2013
In Malawi, shallow wells constitute the most important water sources for domestic purposes. Howev... more In Malawi, shallow wells constitute the most important water sources for domestic purposes. However, increasing human population coupled with poor sanitation and infrastructure is undermining the quality of shallow well water. An assessment of microbial and geochemical quality of shallow well water in highdensity areas of Zolozolo, Ching'ambo and Chiputula in Mzuzu City, Northern Malawi, has been carried out. The study aimed at characterising domestic water sources, identifying possible sources of water contamination and determining levels of microbial and chemical contamination. Arc-view GIS was used to map the water sources. A questionnaire survey was carried out to elicit information on characteristics of drinking water sources. Water samples were collected from quasi-randomly selected shallow wells and analysed for microbial and chemical parameters using standard methods. HCA, performed using Rprogramme, was used to group sampled sites according to their bio-physicochemical characteristics. Compliance of the water with MBS/WHO water quality guidelines was determined. The WQI was computed to turn multifaceted data obtained from laboratory analyses into simple information that is comprehensible and useable by the public to assess overall quality of water at a specific water points. The GW-chart was used to show hydrogeochemical water types from each sampled site. Microbial analysis revealed that water from 96.3% of shallow wells recorded faecal coliforms ranging from 129 to 920 cfu per 100 ml which were significantly higher than the Malawi Standards and WHO thresholds. In general, shallow well water is of low mineralisation (EC range 80-500 lS cm À1), with hydrogeochemical facies dominated by Ca-HCO 3 , which evolves to Ca-Cl water type. The shallow well water registered a WQI range of 50.16-66.04%, with a medium WQ rating. This suggested that the water obtained from the shallow wells is unsuitable for direct human consumption. It was observed that 100% of the shallow wells were at risk of pollution from onsite sanitation because of their proximity to sanitary facilities. It was strongly recommended that onsite treatment interventions have to be mobilised and initiated to protect the households from further possible consequences of using the water.
Waterlines, 2014
Private sector participation in sanitation marketing provides a great opportunity to improve rura... more Private sector participation in sanitation marketing provides a great opportunity to improve rural sanitation access. Although a number of opportunities for private sector participation within the sanitation sector exist, there are numerous barriers and threats to taking up sanitation as a business. This Note from the Field identifies these opportunities, barriers, and threats in Nkhata Bay District, a rural area of Malawi. These insights emerge from a wider research project entitled 'Private sector participation in the delivery of sanitation and hygiene services'. This note provides background information on the research project on private sector participation and the project location. It goes on to describe the data collection process and present two examples of business activities in the district sanitation sector, before listing the opportunities, barriers, and threats identified and the recommendations that emerge from them.
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 2013
ABSTRACT Irrigation water quality is an essential component of sustainable agriculture. Irrigatio... more ABSTRACT Irrigation water quality is an essential component of sustainable agriculture. Irrigation water quality concerns have often been neglected over concerns of quantity in most irrigation projects in Malawi. In this study, a hydrochemical assessment of groundwater was carried out to characterize, classify groundwater and evaluate its suitability for irrigation use in Karonga and Rumphi districts, Northern Malawi. Groundwater samples were collected during wet (January–April 2011) and dry (July–September 2011) seasons from 107 shallow wells and boreholes drilled for rural water supply using standard sampling procedures. The water samples were analysed for pH, major ions, total dissolved solids and electrical conductivity (EC), using standard methods. Multivariate chemometric (such as Kruskal Wallis test), hydrographical methods (i.e. Piper diagram) and PHREEQC geochemical modelling program were used to characterise the groundwater quality. Electrical conductivity, percentage sodium ion (% Na+), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), total dissolved solids (TDS), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), Kelly’s ratio (KR) and permeability index (PI) were used to evaluate the suitability of water for irrigation. It was established that groundwater is neutral to alkaline and mostly freshwater (TDS < 1000 mg/l) of Ca-HCO3- type. Groundwater is of low mineralisation which did not show statistically significant variations with respect to depth of shallow wells and boreholes, location and seasonality at 5% significance level. Groundwater from Karonga District was largely oversaturated with respect to both calcite and dolomite, where as that from Rumphi District was undersaturated with respect to both calcite and dolomite. However, the calculated PCO2 values suggested that the groundwater system was open to soil CO2 and that there was possibility of degassing of CO2 during flow, which could increase the pH and subsequently result in the oversaturation of calcite in both districts. Groundwater water samples were stable towards calcite and kaolinite stability field. This suggested that equilibrium of the groundwater with silicates is an important indicator of the hydrogeochemical processes behind groundwater quality in the study area. The calculated values of SAR, KR and % Na+ indicated good and permissible quality of water for irrigation uses. However, samples with doubtful RSC (6% from Karonga district), unsuitable PI (5% and 3% from Karonga and Rumphi, respectively) and a high salinity hazard (56.2% and 20.3% from Karonga and Rumphi, respectively) values restrict the suitability of the groundwater for agricultural purposes, and plants with good salt tolerance should be selected for such groundwaters. A detailed hydro-geochemical investigation and integrated water management is suggested for sustainable development of the water resources for better plant growth, long-term as well as maintaining human health in the study area.
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 2012
ABSTRACT Literature on water supply and coverage is mixed about whether Malawi will achieve the M... more ABSTRACT Literature on water supply and coverage is mixed about whether Malawi will achieve the MDGs by 2015. Mzuzu City is one of the most rapidly growing urban areas that is faced with public water supply and coverage challenges in Malawi. In view of this, an appraisal was done through documentation review, field visits and face to face interviews in order to evaluate problems of public water supply and coverage. It was observed that inequitable distribution of water points, unreliability of the water supply services and financial losses are some of the problems affecting public water supply in Mzuzu City. The financial losses were attributed to poor financial performance resulting from accrued debts by some individual customers and most government institutions, the board's reliance on loans for expansion of services which has led into more revenue being spent servicing the loan and accrued interests, and high levels of unaccounted for water. This study found out that only 17% of the study population has piped water in their dwelling homes and yards. It was also observed that 51% of the population accesses the water from community stand pipes supplied by the NRWB. This means that only 68% of the study population in Mzuzu City (mostly those from planned settlements) is covered by NRWB and 32% is not covered and relies on boreholes (13.6%), unprotected wells (16.5%) and rivers (1.9%) as sources of water. The percentage composition of the population not covered by NRWB is of great concern and threat to public health and safety. The study recommends that NRWB should ensure that available funds, which would otherwise have been paid out in form of interest, are used on projects in phases to improve water supply and coverage in Mzuzu City. The study also recommends that the government of Malawi should consider converting the NRWB's loans into grants in order to alleviate the NRWB's financial losses. Furthermore, the study recommends that the NRWB should equitably increase its customer base.
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 2012
ABSTRACT An assessment of characteristics and chemical water quality index (WQI) of water supplie... more ABSTRACT An assessment of characteristics and chemical water quality index (WQI) of water supplied by the Northern Region water Board (NRWB) in Mzuzu City was carried out in order to ascertain the quality of water for domestic purposes. The WQI offers a single number that expresses overall water quality for a water sample based on several water quality parameters. In this study raw water and 72 tap water samples were collected monthly between March and September, 2011 and analyzed for major ions, pH, total dissolved solids (TDSs), electrical conductivity (EC), turbidity, total hardness (TH), suspended solids (SSs) and alkalinity using standard methods. The quality and accuracy of the chemical data was assessed by checking electrical balances. The calculated electrical balance errors were found to be less than ±10%, which meant the results were reliable. Based on the Sawyer and McCarty TH classification, 100% of the samples were soft waters (TH < 150 mg/L). Nitrates, which registered medium or average WQ-rating of 69.77 and WQ-rating range of 52.06-86.94, were observed to have significantly affected the overall water quality index of the treated water since the rest of the parameters registered good-excellent WQ-ratings (average WQ-rating: 80.21-97.87). The pH, which is used to determine suitability of water for various purposes, ranged between 6.40 and 6.90 and registered a good water quality rating (WQ rating range: 72.73-87.02) for both raw and treated water. Raw water registered an overall medium water quality rating of 62.67%. Overall, 91.67% of the samples registered a good water quality rating (WQI range: 80.28-88.80%) and 8.33% registered a very good water quality rating (WQI = 90.07%). The results suggested substantial water treatment by the NRWB since the treated water is protected with some negligible degree of impairment that rarely departs from desirable levels of domestic water quality. It is recommended that the WQI should be adopted as a tool to monitor and establish trends in quality of water supplied by the NRWB since it is a composite index that turns complex water quality data into an aggregate rating that reflects the combined influence on the overall water quality as opposed to the univariate water quality assessment approaches such as the Malawi Bureau of Standards.
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 2011
The obligation to ensure adequate potable water supply to everyone, has necessitated the developm... more The obligation to ensure adequate potable water supply to everyone, has necessitated the development of groundwater resources for reliable rural water supply in most developing countries. An understanding of spatial variation and processes affecting water quality is essential in sustaining usable water supplies under changing climate and local environmental pressures. In this study, an assessment of quality and dominant hydro-geochemical processes affecting the quality of groundwater from weathered basement aquifers in Mzimba district, Northern Malawi, has been conducted. Groundwater samples were collected from 172 hand-pumped boreholes, drilled for domestic rural water supply and analysed for major and minor ions, pH and total dissolved solids (TDS). In general, groundwater is of low mineralisation (TDS range: 29-1896 mg L À1 for the dry season), with hydro-geochemical facies dominated by Ca-HCO 3 , which evolves to Ca-Cl water type. Multivariate statistical analysis (HCA and PCA) and geochemical interpretation showed that the Ca-HCO 3 groundwater type result from hydrolysis of silicate minerals, which causes the solution to reach equilibrium with kaolinite. The processes of cation exchange of Na + and K + in the groundwater for Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ on clay minerals, carbonate precipitation and evaporation, are shown to modify the chemical composition from Ca-HCO 3 types to Ca-Cl types. Groundwater is generally of good quality in both rainy and dry seasons, with little seasonal changes. The United States Salinity Laboratory Staff and Wilcox diagrams showed that most samples were also suitable for irrigation except for 4% (eight samples) of the groundwater samples (with EC > 2000 lS cm À1). These are located in alluviums and colluviums localised near river banks and in inter hill valleys.
This study was conducted to determine the effects of socio-demographic characteristics in relatio... more This study was conducted to determine the effects of socio-demographic characteristics in relation to access to improved pit latrine and desludging services in Area 1B, a peri-urban area of low-income settings in Mzuzu City, Northern Malawi. A total of 150 households were purposively sampled to assess the socio-demographic characteristics in terms of level of education, source of income and occupation in relation to the status of pit latrines. Data was analysed using SPSS version 16.0. The results revealed that 69% and 31% of the respondents had improved and unimproved pit latrines, respectively. The use of improved and unimproved type of pit latrines in Area 1B within Mzuzu City in Northern Malawi was attributed to the socio-demographic characteristics of households. Furthermore, the monthly income of the respondents revealed in the study cannot meet the costs of desludging services because it is far below the minimum service charge of one trip of a desludging truck. In order to pr...
Green analytical techniques refer to approaches that decrease or completely remove preservatives,... more Green analytical techniques refer to approaches that decrease or completely remove preservatives, reagents, solvents, and other substances that are dangerous to man and the environment or and that also have the capacity to enhance speed and produce energy-efficient chemical analyses without affecting the quality and the required level of performance of products. This chapter discusses basic principles of green environmental techniques which aim at reducing the impact of chemical activities on man and the environment. These basic principles include energy and water usage reduction, reagent and solvent usage reduction, minimal production of gaseous, liquid and solid, substances during analytical processes, instantaneous analysis for prevention of pollution and intrinsically safer chemistry for prevention of accidents, synthesis of less harmful chemicals, atom economy, prevention, catalysis, design of benign chemicals, use of solvents and auxiliaries that are safer, designing processes that are energy efficient, usage of renewable resources, derivative reduction, and planning for degradation. Emphasis on green separation techniques, green spectrophotometric techniques, basics of green analytical techniques, the problems associated with the formulation of ideologies of green analytical chemistry to existing analytical laboratories, as well as the evaluation of the impact on man and the environment have also been discussed in this chapter.
African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
Relatively few studies have explored how resilience of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) syste... more Relatively few studies have explored how resilience of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) systems to hazards can be enhanced under the current and future development and climatic challenges pressures in urban areas. This study employed the citizen science approach to build the capacity of citizens and integrate communities into scientific research on water quality and WASH related risk monitoring. Data was collected with assistance of 8 self-motivated and trained citizen science research counterparts. Standard sampling procedures were used to collect water samples from a total of 27 unsafe water sources in Karonga Town. The water samples were analysed for biological, physical and chemical parameters using standard methods. Personal observations were done to determine major sanitary risks impacting on a water sources in the town. It was observed that water from the majority of water samples collected from shallow wells, rivers/streams, lake and boreholes were highly contaminated with Escherichia coli, which were considerably higher than Malawi Bureau of Standards water quality specifications for drinking water. In general, the water is of low mineralization with rockwater interactions and surface pollution from anthropogenic activities such as agricultural activities and municipal wastes being responsible for input of biological, chemical and physical pollutants especially into the unlined and uncovered water sources. The results of the water quality index (WQI) and water quality (WQ) ratings indicated that water is not suitable for direct human consumption prior to treatment. It is recommended that onsite treatment and point of use water treatment interventions should be instituted and advocated to improve human health, livelihoods and to build resilience to WASH related risks and hazards in Karonga Town.
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C
Mzuzu Central Hospital wastewater oxidation ponds discharge effluent onto Lunyangwa River, but da... more Mzuzu Central Hospital wastewater oxidation ponds discharge effluent onto Lunyangwa River, but data on its performance is scant. It was thus imperative to assess the performance in terms of levels of pH, EC, TDS, phosphates, feacal coliforms, biological oxygen demand (BOD5) and total suspended solids (TSS) removal from the influent. Grab water samples were collected from the influent, facultative pond, effluent and upper, point of discharge and downstream of the discharge point. Levels of temperature, pH, EC, TDS were determined on site using HANNA instrument model H19812 pH-EC-TDS meter. Levels of BOD5 were determined using DO meter. Feacal coliforms were determined using dilution method. Nitrates and phosphates were determined spectrophotometrically, whereas TSS was determined gravimetrically. Data was analysed using Minitab version 17. The removal efficiencies of TSS, TDS, E.coli, nitrates and EC were observed to be 46.67%, 59.43%, 96.23%, 6.34% and 59.34%, respectively. Except f...
There remains a challenge of technically functional water sources in developing countries under t... more There remains a challenge of technically functional water sources in developing countries under the Millennium Development Goals not being used for a variety of reasons, including cost, traditional beliefs, convenience or politics. This paper presents a focus on self-supply at a newly developed water and sanitation focused centre, the Mzuzu SMART Centre. The SMART Centre concept aims at increasing the availability and functionality of water sources through increasing household ownership of low-cost systems and build-up of entrepreneurs. The primary self-supply, low-cost, technology at the Mzuzu SMART Centre is the Rope pump, a simple technology using locally available materials. It has shown great success. Encouragement of a focus on self-supply through a dedicated training centre may also be the best accompaniment towards improved household water sources in other areas of Southern Africa.
The paper identifies funding mechanisms for private sector participation and provision of rural h... more The paper identifies funding mechanisms for private sector participation and provision of rural household sanitation facilities, within Nkhata Bay District, Malawi.
Although emerging micro-pollutants are ubiquitous in drinking water systems, they remain unregula... more Although emerging micro-pollutants are ubiquitous in drinking water systems, they remain unregulated and unknown in terms of occurrence and distribution in time and space. The problem is compounded by their persistency, very small size and/or polarity which make it difficult for them to be removed by conventional treatment methods. This study was aimed at characterising emerging micro-pollutants (i.e. Bisphenol A (BPA), technical 4-nonylphenol (NP), caffeine (CAF), galaxolide (HHCB), tonalide (AHTN) and carbamazepine (CBZ)), modeling their occurrence and distribution, and synthesising N-CNTs/PES nanocomposite membranes for effective removal of emerging micropollutants in water systems in Mpumalanga, and Northwest provinces in South Africa. Water samples were collected from raw water, treated water and effluents using standard sampling procedures. The target compounds were extracted and enriched by solid phase extraction (SPE). The extracts were stored in SPE cartridges at -18 °C, un...
African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 2017
The study was carried out to understand the risks posed by earthquakes in Karonga based on roles ... more The study was carried out to understand the risks posed by earthquakes in Karonga based on roles and perception of stakeholders. Information was collected from several stakeholders who were found responding to earthquakes impacts in Karonga Town. The study found that several stakeholders, governmental and non-governmental department and organisation operate in Karonga District to respond to hazards and disasters that occur in the district however most of these stakeholders concentrate their activities in rural areas than the town despite having the town experiencing greater impacts from earthquake hazards. The study also found that people of Karonga are aware of earthquakes and how they can avoid their impacts however their economic status fail them from developing infrastructure that can help them to avoid or recover quickly from the impacts of earthquake disasters. It is therefore concluded that the people of Karonga town are vulnerable to earthquake hazards due to limited capacity to develop appropriate infrastructure that can survive seismic hazards.