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Research paper thumbnail of Emerging Infections: A Tribute to the One Medicine, One Health Concept

Zoonoses and Public Health, 2009

SummaryEvents in the last decade have taught us that we are now, more than ever, vulnerable to fa... more SummaryEvents in the last decade have taught us that we are now, more than ever, vulnerable to fatal zoonotic diseases such as those caused by haemorrhagic fever viruses, influenza, rabies and BSE/vCJD. Future research activities should focus on solutions to these problems arising at the interface between animals and humans. A 4‐fold classification of emerging zoonoses was proposed: Type 1: from wild animals to humans (Hanta); Type 1 plus: from wild animals to humans with further human‐to‐human transmission (AIDS); Type 2: from wild animals to domestic animals to humans (Avian flu) and Type 2 plus: from wild animals to domestic animals to humans, with further human‐to‐human transmission (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, SARS). The resulting holistic approach to emerging infections links microbiology, veterinary medicine, human medicine, ecology, public health and epidemiology. As emerging ‘new’ respiratory viruses are identified in many wild and domestic animals, issues of intersp...

Research paper thumbnail of Government proposals conflict

Research paper thumbnail of Bird flu at Oxford: A meeting review

Journal of Molecular and Genetic Medicine, 2009

Research paper thumbnail of The Novel H7N9 Influenza A Virus: Its Present Impact and Indeterminate Future

Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, 2013

Research paper thumbnail of The pig as a mixing vessel for influenza viruses: Human and veterinary implications

Journal of Molecular and Genetic Medicine, 2009

Influenza A viruses are highly infectious respiratory pathogens that can infect many species. Bir... more Influenza A viruses are highly infectious respiratory pathogens that can infect many species. Birds are the reservoir for all known influenza A subtypes; and novel influenza viruses can emerge from birds and infect mammalian species including humans. Because swine are susceptible to infection with both avian and human influenza viruses, novel reassortant influenza viruses can be generated in this mammalian species by reassortment of influenza viral segments leading to the "mixing vessel" theory. There is no direct evidence that the reassortment events culminating in the 1918, 1957 or 1968 pandemic influenza viruses originated from pigs. Genetic reassortment among avian, human and/or swine influenza virus gene segments has occurred in pigs and some novel reassortant swine viruses have been transmitted to humans. Notably, novel reassortant H2N3 influenza viruses isolated from the US pigs, most likely infected with avian influenza viruses through surface water collected in ponds for cleaning barns and watering animals, had a similar genetic make-up to early isolates (1957) of the H2N2 human pandemic. These novel H2N3 swine viruses were able to cause disease in swine and mice and were infectious and highly transmissible in swine and ferrets without prior adaptation. The preceding example shows that pigs could transmit novel viruses from an avian reservoir to other mammalian species. Importantly, H2 viruses pose a substantial risk to humans because they have been absent from mammalian species since 1968 and people born after 1968 have little preexisting immunity to the H2 subtype. It is difficult to predict which virus will cause the next human pandemic and when that pandemic might begin. Importantly, the establishment and spread of a reassorted mammalian-adapted virus from pigs to humans could happen anywhere in the world. Therefore, both human and veterinary research needs to give more attention to potential cross-species transmission capacity of influenza A viruses.

ine odovious potential OF creating novel reassortant influenza viruses in pigs has led to the “mixing vessel” theory (Figure 1). The theory was first proposed by Scholtissek and his colleagues (1985) based on the understanding that human influenza A viruses do not spread easily to birds and vice versa, whereas the species barrier to pigs is rather low (Scholtissek, 1990; 1996). The antigenic and genetic similarities between certain subtypes of avian, swine and human influenza viruses and the susceptibility of swine to avian and human influenza viruses form the basis of this theory. Most avian and human influenza viruses preferentially bind to specific receptor types having SAa2,3Gal (avian receptor)- or SAa2,6Gal (mammalian receptor)-terminated saccharides, respectively (Rogers and Paulson, 1983; Rogers and D’Souza, 1989). Both receptors have been found in the respiratory tract of swine (Ito et al, 1998), providing solid molecular evidence for pigs as “mixing vessels” for human and avian influenza viruses. Although these receptor types are also found in the respiratory tract of quail (Wan and Perez, 2006) and in humans (Shinya et al, 2006), it should be noted that pigs have been shown to transmit reassortant influenza viruses to humans (Olsen et al, 2006; Robinson et al, 2007; Swenson et al, 2008). Furthermore, humans can also transmit influenza viruses to pigs as will be discussed in the following paragraph. Zoonotic infections are not a one-way only event; they can work in both directions. Figure 1. The pig as a “mixing vessel” for influenza A viruses. Wild aquatic birds are the natural reservoirs for influenza A virus subtypes H1-H16. Avian influenza A viruses are frequently transmitted to domestic fowl from the natural wild life reservoirs, and also to pigs from domestic fowl. Human and avian influenza

Research paper thumbnail of 6th International Conference on Emerging Zoonoses

Zoonoses and Public Health, 2012

Impacts  Summaries provide reviews of specific zoonoses and threats to human and animal health. ... more Impacts  Summaries provide reviews of specific zoonoses and threats to human and animal health.  Genomic analysis and systems and computational biology are increasingly important research tools whatever emerging disease is being investigated.  The continuum of basic research leading to understanding a disease and then to managing that disease and finally to preventing it offers a pattern of scientific discovery that is relevant to many emerging zoonotic diseases.

Research paper thumbnail of Recovering Confession

This essay explores the possibilities for renewing the practice and power of confession in the Or... more This essay explores the possibilities for renewing the practice and power of confession in the Orthodox Church today, examining both historical developments and contemporary insights. The relationship between confession and spiritual guidance is also considered.

Research paper thumbnail of A One Health Approach to Influenza Pandemics

A One Health Approach to Influenza Pandemics

Confronting Emerging Zoonoses, 2014

Research paper thumbnail of Swine and influenza: a challenge to one health research

Current topics in microbiology and immunology, 2014

Commercial vaccines currently available against swine influenza virus (SIV) are inactivated, adju... more Commercial vaccines currently available against swine influenza virus (SIV) are inactivated, adjuvanted, whole virus vaccines, based on H1N1 and/or H3N2 and/or H1N2 SIVs. In keeping with the antigenic and genetic differences between SIVs circulating in Europe and the US, the vaccines for each region are produced locally and contain different strains. Even within a continent, there is no standardization of vaccine strains, and the antigen mass and adjuvants can also differ between different commercial products. Recombinant protein vaccines against SIV, vector, and DNA vaccines, and vaccines attenuated by reverse genetics have been tested in experimental studies, but they have not yet reached the market. In this review, we aim to present a critical analysis of the performance of commercial inactivated and novel generation SIV vaccines in experimental vaccination challenge studies in pigs. We pay special attention to the differences between commercial SIV vaccines and vaccination attitudes in Europe and in North America, to the issue of vaccine strain selection and changes, and to the potential advantages of novel generation vaccines over the traditional killed SIV vaccines.

Research paper thumbnail of Emerging Infections: A Tribute to the One Medicine, One Health Concept

Zoonoses and Public Health, 2009

SummaryEvents in the last decade have taught us that we are now, more than ever, vulnerable to fa... more SummaryEvents in the last decade have taught us that we are now, more than ever, vulnerable to fatal zoonotic diseases such as those caused by haemorrhagic fever viruses, influenza, rabies and BSE/vCJD. Future research activities should focus on solutions to these problems arising at the interface between animals and humans. A 4‐fold classification of emerging zoonoses was proposed: Type 1: from wild animals to humans (Hanta); Type 1 plus: from wild animals to humans with further human‐to‐human transmission (AIDS); Type 2: from wild animals to domestic animals to humans (Avian flu) and Type 2 plus: from wild animals to domestic animals to humans, with further human‐to‐human transmission (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, SARS). The resulting holistic approach to emerging infections links microbiology, veterinary medicine, human medicine, ecology, public health and epidemiology. As emerging ‘new’ respiratory viruses are identified in many wild and domestic animals, issues of intersp...

Research paper thumbnail of Government proposals conflict

Research paper thumbnail of Bird flu at Oxford: A meeting review

Journal of Molecular and Genetic Medicine, 2009

Research paper thumbnail of The Novel H7N9 Influenza A Virus: Its Present Impact and Indeterminate Future

Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, 2013

Research paper thumbnail of The pig as a mixing vessel for influenza viruses: Human and veterinary implications

Journal of Molecular and Genetic Medicine, 2009

Influenza A viruses are highly infectious respiratory pathogens that can infect many species. Bir... more Influenza A viruses are highly infectious respiratory pathogens that can infect many species. Birds are the reservoir for all known influenza A subtypes; and novel influenza viruses can emerge from birds and infect mammalian species including humans. Because swine are susceptible to infection with both avian and human influenza viruses, novel reassortant influenza viruses can be generated in this mammalian species by reassortment of influenza viral segments leading to the "mixing vessel" theory. There is no direct evidence that the reassortment events culminating in the 1918, 1957 or 1968 pandemic influenza viruses originated from pigs. Genetic reassortment among avian, human and/or swine influenza virus gene segments has occurred in pigs and some novel reassortant swine viruses have been transmitted to humans. Notably, novel reassortant H2N3 influenza viruses isolated from the US pigs, most likely infected with avian influenza viruses through surface water collected in ponds for cleaning barns and watering animals, had a similar genetic make-up to early isolates (1957) of the H2N2 human pandemic. These novel H2N3 swine viruses were able to cause disease in swine and mice and were infectious and highly transmissible in swine and ferrets without prior adaptation. The preceding example shows that pigs could transmit novel viruses from an avian reservoir to other mammalian species. Importantly, H2 viruses pose a substantial risk to humans because they have been absent from mammalian species since 1968 and people born after 1968 have little preexisting immunity to the H2 subtype. It is difficult to predict which virus will cause the next human pandemic and when that pandemic might begin. Importantly, the establishment and spread of a reassorted mammalian-adapted virus from pigs to humans could happen anywhere in the world. Therefore, both human and veterinary research needs to give more attention to potential cross-species transmission capacity of influenza A viruses.

ine odovious potential OF creating novel reassortant influenza viruses in pigs has led to the “mixing vessel” theory (Figure 1). The theory was first proposed by Scholtissek and his colleagues (1985) based on the understanding that human influenza A viruses do not spread easily to birds and vice versa, whereas the species barrier to pigs is rather low (Scholtissek, 1990; 1996). The antigenic and genetic similarities between certain subtypes of avian, swine and human influenza viruses and the susceptibility of swine to avian and human influenza viruses form the basis of this theory. Most avian and human influenza viruses preferentially bind to specific receptor types having SAa2,3Gal (avian receptor)- or SAa2,6Gal (mammalian receptor)-terminated saccharides, respectively (Rogers and Paulson, 1983; Rogers and D’Souza, 1989). Both receptors have been found in the respiratory tract of swine (Ito et al, 1998), providing solid molecular evidence for pigs as “mixing vessels” for human and avian influenza viruses. Although these receptor types are also found in the respiratory tract of quail (Wan and Perez, 2006) and in humans (Shinya et al, 2006), it should be noted that pigs have been shown to transmit reassortant influenza viruses to humans (Olsen et al, 2006; Robinson et al, 2007; Swenson et al, 2008). Furthermore, humans can also transmit influenza viruses to pigs as will be discussed in the following paragraph. Zoonotic infections are not a one-way only event; they can work in both directions. Figure 1. The pig as a “mixing vessel” for influenza A viruses. Wild aquatic birds are the natural reservoirs for influenza A virus subtypes H1-H16. Avian influenza A viruses are frequently transmitted to domestic fowl from the natural wild life reservoirs, and also to pigs from domestic fowl. Human and avian influenza

Research paper thumbnail of 6th International Conference on Emerging Zoonoses

Zoonoses and Public Health, 2012

Impacts  Summaries provide reviews of specific zoonoses and threats to human and animal health. ... more Impacts  Summaries provide reviews of specific zoonoses and threats to human and animal health.  Genomic analysis and systems and computational biology are increasingly important research tools whatever emerging disease is being investigated.  The continuum of basic research leading to understanding a disease and then to managing that disease and finally to preventing it offers a pattern of scientific discovery that is relevant to many emerging zoonotic diseases.

Research paper thumbnail of Recovering Confession

This essay explores the possibilities for renewing the practice and power of confession in the Or... more This essay explores the possibilities for renewing the practice and power of confession in the Orthodox Church today, examining both historical developments and contemporary insights. The relationship between confession and spiritual guidance is also considered.

Research paper thumbnail of A One Health Approach to Influenza Pandemics

A One Health Approach to Influenza Pandemics

Confronting Emerging Zoonoses, 2014

Research paper thumbnail of Swine and influenza: a challenge to one health research

Current topics in microbiology and immunology, 2014

Commercial vaccines currently available against swine influenza virus (SIV) are inactivated, adju... more Commercial vaccines currently available against swine influenza virus (SIV) are inactivated, adjuvanted, whole virus vaccines, based on H1N1 and/or H3N2 and/or H1N2 SIVs. In keeping with the antigenic and genetic differences between SIVs circulating in Europe and the US, the vaccines for each region are produced locally and contain different strains. Even within a continent, there is no standardization of vaccine strains, and the antigen mass and adjuvants can also differ between different commercial products. Recombinant protein vaccines against SIV, vector, and DNA vaccines, and vaccines attenuated by reverse genetics have been tested in experimental studies, but they have not yet reached the market. In this review, we aim to present a critical analysis of the performance of commercial inactivated and novel generation SIV vaccines in experimental vaccination challenge studies in pigs. We pay special attention to the differences between commercial SIV vaccines and vaccination attitudes in Europe and in North America, to the issue of vaccine strain selection and changes, and to the potential advantages of novel generation vaccines over the traditional killed SIV vaccines.