Felix Liao - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Felix Liao

Findings, 2021

Teleworking and lockdown measures implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic have resulted in reduc... more Teleworking and lockdown measures implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic have resulted in reduced traffic flows and fewer cars at risk of collision on roads. The present study presents an analysis of the pandemic’s impact on traffic safety and crash severity in the city of Seattle, WA. We found increased shares of speeding-related, angle-, and head-on collisions and relatively more collisions occurring during off-peak hours. Results of quasi-difference-in-differences modeling further suggest that collisions occurring during the post-lockdown period have had a higher probability of being fatal or resulting in severe injuries, compared to what would be expected in the absence of the pandemic.

Regional Inequality in Transitional China, 2020

ABSTRACTDespite fewer cars on roads during the COVID-19 pandemic, deaths associated with motor ve... more ABSTRACTDespite fewer cars on roads during the COVID-19 pandemic, deaths associated with motor vehicle collisions in New York City and Seattle remained largely unchanged in 2020. Using police data on weekly counts of collisions, we compared trends in 2020 with those of 2019, while controlling for the reduction of traffic volumes and seasonal weather conditions. Results of difference-in-differences estimation suggest that during the early months of the pandemic, or March-May, the incidence rates of severe or fatal injury crashes related to speeding increased by nearly 8 times in Seattle and more than 4 times in New York City. In the rest of 2020, they were still significantly higher than what would be expected in the absence of the pandemic. This research suggests that in similar situations that depress travel demand (e.g., another pandemic), policymakers should formulate plans to reduce speeding which may prevent an upswing in severe injuries and fatalities.

Journal of Rural Studies, 2022

This book investigates uneven regional development in China-with particular focus on the cases of... more This book investigates uneven regional development in China-with particular focus on the cases of Guangdong and Zheijiang provinces-which have been at the forefront of debate since Chinese economic reform. Rapid economic growth since the 'opening-up' of China has been accompanied by significant disparities in the regional distribution of income: this book represents one of the most recent studies to present a picture of this inequality. Built upon a multi-scale and multi-mechanism framework, it provides systematic examination of both the patterns and mechanisms of regional development and inequality in provincial China, emphasizing the effects of economic transition. Approaching from a geographical perspective, its authors consider the interplay between the local, the state, and the global forces in shaping the landscape of regional inequality in China. Extensive empirical findings will prove useful to those researching other developing countries within the frontier of globalization and economic transition.

Regional Inequality in Transitional China, 2020

Regional Inequality in Transitional China, 2020

Applied Geography, 2020

Abstract This paper investigates regional inequality, spatial polarization, and places mobility i... more Abstract This paper investigates regional inequality, spatial polarization, and places mobility in provincial China through a case study of Jiangsu province from a multi-scale and multi-dimensional framework. Based on policy changes and inequality indices, we divide the development trajectory of Jiangsu since the reform into three sub-periods: 1978–1993, 1994–2004, and 2004–2014. The analysis reveals that regional inequality and polarization have a similar pattern: fast growth during 1978–1993, fluctuating during 1994–2004, and stable decline after 2004. Place mobility stays low after 1994, mainly because of the growing accumulation of the developed area. After 2004 we can observe higher mobility, which, however, is not strong enough to change the core-periphery structure. The spatial measurements reflect the spatial agglomeration process, and the core-periphery structure has become clear and stable since 1994. Such findings are also confirmed by the clustering of self-organizing maps (SOM), which reveals local development trajectories in Jiangsu. This paper shows that a strong core-periphery structure increases spatial polarization and reduces place mobility, even though regional inequality does not intensify. More policies are needed to address the serious problems of spatial exclusion, the tremendous core-periphery gap, the persistent polarization among geographical regions and populations, and the decreasing place mobility. Our study calls for a more in-depth investigation of the multi-scale and multi-dimensional nature of spatial inequality and further analysis of the complexity of spatial inequality and the development of poorer regions.

Regional Inequality in Transitional China, 2020

Applied Geography, 2019

The aim of this paper is to analyze the spatiotemporal pattern of county economy and investigate ... more The aim of this paper is to analyze the spatiotemporal pattern of county economy and investigate the multimechanism process of regional inequality in rural China. Empirical analysis is based on 2076 counties (921 urban districts are excluded), 338 prefecture-level cities, 31 provincial units and four regions of China from 2000 to 2015. Data has identified 73.13% of Gross Domestic Product being created in counties of China and the difference between urban districts and counties started to decrease over time in four regions. The spatial pattern of county economy is highly imbalanced and spatial agglomeration of county economy is self-reinforcing from 2000 to 2015. Based on the theoretical framework proposed in this paper and drawing upon spatial panel regression models, the multi-mechanism process of regional inequality in rural China demonstrates strong regional variations and temporal effect. Urbanization and fiscal transfers are negative associated with county economy in central and northeastern regions; the constraining effect of physical factors is decreasing over time and the positive impact of bank loans is statistically significant in all regions. The "province administering counties" institution only achieves some success in stimulating county economy in coastal provinces and its impact is negative in less-developed central and western regions. This research facilitates political strategiesmaking of regional development and rural revitalization.

Landscape and Urban Planning, 2019

The spatial distribution of urban greenness within a city is largely influenced by land use confi... more The spatial distribution of urban greenness within a city is largely influenced by land use configuration and social factors. This study builds upon previous research focusing on urban forest patterns in relation to land use and socioeconomic determinants, while expanding the set of measures used to represent the forest structure. Instead of focusing on canopy cover alone, this study examines two additional attributes, stem density and species diversity, and evaluates the relative importance of land use and socioeconomic indicators in determining the urban forest structure in Cook County, Illinois. A combination of remotely sourced data sets and tree records from field surveys are used collectively in addressing the following hypotheses: (H 0) Canopy cover alone sufficiently describes the predominant forest patterns in Cook County, (H 1) Forest structure measured as described by canopy cover, stem density, and species diversity, varies across census tracts, and (H 2) Spatial variability is explained by the land use distributions and a defined set of socioeconomic variables. Our results show that the land use and socioeconomic factors are better correlates with canopy cover and stem density than species diversity. Overall, Cook County's urban forest is unevenly distributed across census tracts, with wealth, education, racial composition, and home ownership playing different roles in shaping the forest structure. Our study also identifies the many challenges the urban forest is currently facing and highlights key priorities for future planning and management efforts towards a healthier, more diverse regional forest.

The Science of the total environment, Jan 24, 2018

There is increasing evidence of environmental change impacts on freshwater ecosystem services esp... more There is increasing evidence of environmental change impacts on freshwater ecosystem services especially through land use and climate change. However, little is known about how land conservation could help mitigate adverse water-sustainability impacts. In this paper, we utilized the InVEST tool and the Residual Trends method to assess the joint effects and relative contributions of climate change and land conservation on freshwater ecosystem services in the Portneuf River catchment in Idaho, USA. We developed five hypothesized scenarios regarding gain and loss in the enrollment of Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), the largest agricultural land-retirement program in the U.S., plus riparian buffer and assessed their interactions with climate change. Results suggest that the realized water yield in the Portneuf River catchment would possibly be 56% less due to climate change and 24% less due to the decline of CRP enrollment. On the contrary, if CRP enrollment is promoted by ~30% and ...

Sustainability, 2016

In the context of the global information economy, ready access to the Internet is critical to a c... more In the context of the global information economy, ready access to the Internet is critical to a city's competitiveness, which has prompted a number of cities to launch plans to establish wireless networks. Most literature on the development of wireless cities focuses on cities in Western countries, and few have discussed how Chinese cities have adopted wireless technologies in their urban infrastructure development efforts. This paper examines recent development and spatial distribution of public Wi-Fi access in Shanghai, a leading business hub in China. We mapped Wi-Fi hotspots through the government sponsored "i-Shanghai" project and China Mobile Communications Corporation (CMCC). We find that while telecommunication providers have been proactively deploying WLAN (wireless local area network, a proxy of public Wi-Fi or wireless access) hotspots in Shanghai, neither government sponsored WLAN hotspots nor facilities established by CMCC could cover the old traditional neighborhoods in the central city and sub-districts in remote rural areas. We also address the development of a more sustainable wireless city in Shanghai with a particular focus on digital divide and social equity issues.

Sustainability, 2016

Amenity value of water resources has become a major driving force of recent population growth in ... more Amenity value of water resources has become a major driving force of recent population growth in the region centered on Coeur d'Alene Lake in northern Idaho, USA. Despite regulatory measures aimed to protect lake water quality, surface water quality is increasingly threatened by lakefront development and invasions of Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum), a non-indigenous aquatic plant species. We used hedonic modeling to estimate the effects of ambient water quality and the presence of Eurasian watermilfoil on lakefront property values of single-family homes in the Coeur d´Alene area. We find that property values are positively associated with Secchi depth (a proxy of water quality or clarity), and negatively related to the presence of watermilfoil. Results of spatial regime analysis indicate the geographical variations of these associations. The presence of watermilfoil was related to a 13% decline in mean property value, corresponding to $64,255 USD, on average, lower property sales price. Our study demonstrates that proactive mitigation approaches to cope with potential environmental degradation in lake ecosystems could have significant economic benefits to owners of lakefront properties and local communities.

Applied Geography, 2015

This paper investigates regional inequality and development in China's Guangdong province by empl... more This paper investigates regional inequality and development in China's Guangdong province by employing the multi-scale and multi-mechanism framework. Departing from previous studies in which the relationship between spatial dependence and regional inequality tends to be self-evident, we apply a spatial filtering method that eliminates spatial dependence of the data and quantifies the extent to which spatial effects have contributed to regional inequality at multiple scales. The results suggest that over 90% of the divide between the core of the Pearl River Delta (PRD) and the periphery areas of Guangdong province can be explained by the effect of strengthening spatial autocorrelation. By incorporating spatial filters in space-time models, we further reveal the space-time and core-periphery heterogeneities of development mechanisms. Our study confirms that the integration of a multi-scale and multi-mechanism framework and rigorous spatial analysis methods, such as spatial filtering and space-time modeling, helps better understand the spatial and temporal complexity of regional development in China.

Applied Geography, 2015

In a growing body of literature on urbanization in China, scholars have emphasized the proactive ... more In a growing body of literature on urbanization in China, scholars have emphasized the proactive role of the Chinese local state in urban land expansion. Drawing upon official land use change data from 1998 to 2008, this study investigates the relationship between the hierarchical structure of the Chinese urban administrative system and urban land expansion. We find that urban land expansion coincides with administrative hierarchy, and cities with higher administrative levels (ranked by central government) tend to expand more rapidly while controlling for other economic and demographic drivers of urban expansion. Spatial regime models reveal that economic and demographic drivers of urban growth are also sensitive to a city's administrative rank. By quantifying the link between a city's rank and urban land expansion, we conclude that considering the hierarchical structure of the Chinese cities will result in a fuller understanding of the rapid urban growth in China.

Urban Studies, 2014

The success of compact development depends in part on accurately gauging its public demand and un... more The success of compact development depends in part on accurately gauging its public demand and understanding residents’ preferences towards it. Drawing upon a stated-preference survey in the Wasatch Front region in Utah, this paper estimates preferences for compact, walkable and transit-friendly neighbourhoods through the application of a discrete choice experiment. Results derived from a latent class analysis reveal significant heterogeneity in residential location preferences. Overall, strong preferences for compact development are more likely to occur among families with fewer school-age children, low-income and renter-occupied households, and those who appreciate social heterogeneity and have less desire for privacy. These tastes are also associated with personal preferences for walking and biking and supportive opinions toward environmental protection and urban growth boundary policies. By comparing respondents’ preferences to their actual residential and travel choices in two ...

Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie, 2010

In the new era of globalisation, participation in the global production network (GPN) initiated b... more In the new era of globalisation, participation in the global production network (GPN) initiated by transnational corporations (TNC) has created upgrading possibilities for local firms in developing countries, through the backward linkages of TNCs. Drawing upon the GPN approach with emphasis on its conceptualisation of embeddedness, this study demonstrates that cross-border production networks of Taiwanese PC investment in Dongguan could be regarded as an exclusive network, which is characterised by closed backward linkages with pre-established Taiwanese electronics suppliers while relatively weak ties with local suppliers in Dongguan. One of the results is that cross-border production of Taiwanese PC investment has not substantially brought about industrial upgrading of Dongguan over the past two decades, which is different from previous empirical experiences of TNC-driven clusters in other countries and regions in East Asia.

Findings, 2021

Teleworking and lockdown measures implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic have resulted in reduc... more Teleworking and lockdown measures implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic have resulted in reduced traffic flows and fewer cars at risk of collision on roads. The present study presents an analysis of the pandemic’s impact on traffic safety and crash severity in the city of Seattle, WA. We found increased shares of speeding-related, angle-, and head-on collisions and relatively more collisions occurring during off-peak hours. Results of quasi-difference-in-differences modeling further suggest that collisions occurring during the post-lockdown period have had a higher probability of being fatal or resulting in severe injuries, compared to what would be expected in the absence of the pandemic.

Regional Inequality in Transitional China, 2020

ABSTRACTDespite fewer cars on roads during the COVID-19 pandemic, deaths associated with motor ve... more ABSTRACTDespite fewer cars on roads during the COVID-19 pandemic, deaths associated with motor vehicle collisions in New York City and Seattle remained largely unchanged in 2020. Using police data on weekly counts of collisions, we compared trends in 2020 with those of 2019, while controlling for the reduction of traffic volumes and seasonal weather conditions. Results of difference-in-differences estimation suggest that during the early months of the pandemic, or March-May, the incidence rates of severe or fatal injury crashes related to speeding increased by nearly 8 times in Seattle and more than 4 times in New York City. In the rest of 2020, they were still significantly higher than what would be expected in the absence of the pandemic. This research suggests that in similar situations that depress travel demand (e.g., another pandemic), policymakers should formulate plans to reduce speeding which may prevent an upswing in severe injuries and fatalities.

Journal of Rural Studies, 2022

This book investigates uneven regional development in China-with particular focus on the cases of... more This book investigates uneven regional development in China-with particular focus on the cases of Guangdong and Zheijiang provinces-which have been at the forefront of debate since Chinese economic reform. Rapid economic growth since the 'opening-up' of China has been accompanied by significant disparities in the regional distribution of income: this book represents one of the most recent studies to present a picture of this inequality. Built upon a multi-scale and multi-mechanism framework, it provides systematic examination of both the patterns and mechanisms of regional development and inequality in provincial China, emphasizing the effects of economic transition. Approaching from a geographical perspective, its authors consider the interplay between the local, the state, and the global forces in shaping the landscape of regional inequality in China. Extensive empirical findings will prove useful to those researching other developing countries within the frontier of globalization and economic transition.

Regional Inequality in Transitional China, 2020

Regional Inequality in Transitional China, 2020

Applied Geography, 2020

Abstract This paper investigates regional inequality, spatial polarization, and places mobility i... more Abstract This paper investigates regional inequality, spatial polarization, and places mobility in provincial China through a case study of Jiangsu province from a multi-scale and multi-dimensional framework. Based on policy changes and inequality indices, we divide the development trajectory of Jiangsu since the reform into three sub-periods: 1978–1993, 1994–2004, and 2004–2014. The analysis reveals that regional inequality and polarization have a similar pattern: fast growth during 1978–1993, fluctuating during 1994–2004, and stable decline after 2004. Place mobility stays low after 1994, mainly because of the growing accumulation of the developed area. After 2004 we can observe higher mobility, which, however, is not strong enough to change the core-periphery structure. The spatial measurements reflect the spatial agglomeration process, and the core-periphery structure has become clear and stable since 1994. Such findings are also confirmed by the clustering of self-organizing maps (SOM), which reveals local development trajectories in Jiangsu. This paper shows that a strong core-periphery structure increases spatial polarization and reduces place mobility, even though regional inequality does not intensify. More policies are needed to address the serious problems of spatial exclusion, the tremendous core-periphery gap, the persistent polarization among geographical regions and populations, and the decreasing place mobility. Our study calls for a more in-depth investigation of the multi-scale and multi-dimensional nature of spatial inequality and further analysis of the complexity of spatial inequality and the development of poorer regions.

Regional Inequality in Transitional China, 2020

Applied Geography, 2019

The aim of this paper is to analyze the spatiotemporal pattern of county economy and investigate ... more The aim of this paper is to analyze the spatiotemporal pattern of county economy and investigate the multimechanism process of regional inequality in rural China. Empirical analysis is based on 2076 counties (921 urban districts are excluded), 338 prefecture-level cities, 31 provincial units and four regions of China from 2000 to 2015. Data has identified 73.13% of Gross Domestic Product being created in counties of China and the difference between urban districts and counties started to decrease over time in four regions. The spatial pattern of county economy is highly imbalanced and spatial agglomeration of county economy is self-reinforcing from 2000 to 2015. Based on the theoretical framework proposed in this paper and drawing upon spatial panel regression models, the multi-mechanism process of regional inequality in rural China demonstrates strong regional variations and temporal effect. Urbanization and fiscal transfers are negative associated with county economy in central and northeastern regions; the constraining effect of physical factors is decreasing over time and the positive impact of bank loans is statistically significant in all regions. The "province administering counties" institution only achieves some success in stimulating county economy in coastal provinces and its impact is negative in less-developed central and western regions. This research facilitates political strategiesmaking of regional development and rural revitalization.

Landscape and Urban Planning, 2019

The spatial distribution of urban greenness within a city is largely influenced by land use confi... more The spatial distribution of urban greenness within a city is largely influenced by land use configuration and social factors. This study builds upon previous research focusing on urban forest patterns in relation to land use and socioeconomic determinants, while expanding the set of measures used to represent the forest structure. Instead of focusing on canopy cover alone, this study examines two additional attributes, stem density and species diversity, and evaluates the relative importance of land use and socioeconomic indicators in determining the urban forest structure in Cook County, Illinois. A combination of remotely sourced data sets and tree records from field surveys are used collectively in addressing the following hypotheses: (H 0) Canopy cover alone sufficiently describes the predominant forest patterns in Cook County, (H 1) Forest structure measured as described by canopy cover, stem density, and species diversity, varies across census tracts, and (H 2) Spatial variability is explained by the land use distributions and a defined set of socioeconomic variables. Our results show that the land use and socioeconomic factors are better correlates with canopy cover and stem density than species diversity. Overall, Cook County's urban forest is unevenly distributed across census tracts, with wealth, education, racial composition, and home ownership playing different roles in shaping the forest structure. Our study also identifies the many challenges the urban forest is currently facing and highlights key priorities for future planning and management efforts towards a healthier, more diverse regional forest.

The Science of the total environment, Jan 24, 2018

There is increasing evidence of environmental change impacts on freshwater ecosystem services esp... more There is increasing evidence of environmental change impacts on freshwater ecosystem services especially through land use and climate change. However, little is known about how land conservation could help mitigate adverse water-sustainability impacts. In this paper, we utilized the InVEST tool and the Residual Trends method to assess the joint effects and relative contributions of climate change and land conservation on freshwater ecosystem services in the Portneuf River catchment in Idaho, USA. We developed five hypothesized scenarios regarding gain and loss in the enrollment of Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), the largest agricultural land-retirement program in the U.S., plus riparian buffer and assessed their interactions with climate change. Results suggest that the realized water yield in the Portneuf River catchment would possibly be 56% less due to climate change and 24% less due to the decline of CRP enrollment. On the contrary, if CRP enrollment is promoted by ~30% and ...

Sustainability, 2016

In the context of the global information economy, ready access to the Internet is critical to a c... more In the context of the global information economy, ready access to the Internet is critical to a city's competitiveness, which has prompted a number of cities to launch plans to establish wireless networks. Most literature on the development of wireless cities focuses on cities in Western countries, and few have discussed how Chinese cities have adopted wireless technologies in their urban infrastructure development efforts. This paper examines recent development and spatial distribution of public Wi-Fi access in Shanghai, a leading business hub in China. We mapped Wi-Fi hotspots through the government sponsored "i-Shanghai" project and China Mobile Communications Corporation (CMCC). We find that while telecommunication providers have been proactively deploying WLAN (wireless local area network, a proxy of public Wi-Fi or wireless access) hotspots in Shanghai, neither government sponsored WLAN hotspots nor facilities established by CMCC could cover the old traditional neighborhoods in the central city and sub-districts in remote rural areas. We also address the development of a more sustainable wireless city in Shanghai with a particular focus on digital divide and social equity issues.

Sustainability, 2016

Amenity value of water resources has become a major driving force of recent population growth in ... more Amenity value of water resources has become a major driving force of recent population growth in the region centered on Coeur d'Alene Lake in northern Idaho, USA. Despite regulatory measures aimed to protect lake water quality, surface water quality is increasingly threatened by lakefront development and invasions of Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum), a non-indigenous aquatic plant species. We used hedonic modeling to estimate the effects of ambient water quality and the presence of Eurasian watermilfoil on lakefront property values of single-family homes in the Coeur d´Alene area. We find that property values are positively associated with Secchi depth (a proxy of water quality or clarity), and negatively related to the presence of watermilfoil. Results of spatial regime analysis indicate the geographical variations of these associations. The presence of watermilfoil was related to a 13% decline in mean property value, corresponding to $64,255 USD, on average, lower property sales price. Our study demonstrates that proactive mitigation approaches to cope with potential environmental degradation in lake ecosystems could have significant economic benefits to owners of lakefront properties and local communities.

Applied Geography, 2015

This paper investigates regional inequality and development in China's Guangdong province by empl... more This paper investigates regional inequality and development in China's Guangdong province by employing the multi-scale and multi-mechanism framework. Departing from previous studies in which the relationship between spatial dependence and regional inequality tends to be self-evident, we apply a spatial filtering method that eliminates spatial dependence of the data and quantifies the extent to which spatial effects have contributed to regional inequality at multiple scales. The results suggest that over 90% of the divide between the core of the Pearl River Delta (PRD) and the periphery areas of Guangdong province can be explained by the effect of strengthening spatial autocorrelation. By incorporating spatial filters in space-time models, we further reveal the space-time and core-periphery heterogeneities of development mechanisms. Our study confirms that the integration of a multi-scale and multi-mechanism framework and rigorous spatial analysis methods, such as spatial filtering and space-time modeling, helps better understand the spatial and temporal complexity of regional development in China.

Applied Geography, 2015

In a growing body of literature on urbanization in China, scholars have emphasized the proactive ... more In a growing body of literature on urbanization in China, scholars have emphasized the proactive role of the Chinese local state in urban land expansion. Drawing upon official land use change data from 1998 to 2008, this study investigates the relationship between the hierarchical structure of the Chinese urban administrative system and urban land expansion. We find that urban land expansion coincides with administrative hierarchy, and cities with higher administrative levels (ranked by central government) tend to expand more rapidly while controlling for other economic and demographic drivers of urban expansion. Spatial regime models reveal that economic and demographic drivers of urban growth are also sensitive to a city's administrative rank. By quantifying the link between a city's rank and urban land expansion, we conclude that considering the hierarchical structure of the Chinese cities will result in a fuller understanding of the rapid urban growth in China.

Urban Studies, 2014

The success of compact development depends in part on accurately gauging its public demand and un... more The success of compact development depends in part on accurately gauging its public demand and understanding residents’ preferences towards it. Drawing upon a stated-preference survey in the Wasatch Front region in Utah, this paper estimates preferences for compact, walkable and transit-friendly neighbourhoods through the application of a discrete choice experiment. Results derived from a latent class analysis reveal significant heterogeneity in residential location preferences. Overall, strong preferences for compact development are more likely to occur among families with fewer school-age children, low-income and renter-occupied households, and those who appreciate social heterogeneity and have less desire for privacy. These tastes are also associated with personal preferences for walking and biking and supportive opinions toward environmental protection and urban growth boundary policies. By comparing respondents’ preferences to their actual residential and travel choices in two ...

Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie, 2010

In the new era of globalisation, participation in the global production network (GPN) initiated b... more In the new era of globalisation, participation in the global production network (GPN) initiated by transnational corporations (TNC) has created upgrading possibilities for local firms in developing countries, through the backward linkages of TNCs. Drawing upon the GPN approach with emphasis on its conceptualisation of embeddedness, this study demonstrates that cross-border production networks of Taiwanese PC investment in Dongguan could be regarded as an exclusive network, which is characterised by closed backward linkages with pre-established Taiwanese electronics suppliers while relatively weak ties with local suppliers in Dongguan. One of the results is that cross-border production of Taiwanese PC investment has not substantially brought about industrial upgrading of Dongguan over the past two decades, which is different from previous empirical experiences of TNC-driven clusters in other countries and regions in East Asia.