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Papers by Florian Schmaltz

Journal of the History of the Neurosciences

To further our understanding of the transformations of the modern, globalized world, historical r... more To further our understanding of the transformations of the modern, globalized world, historical research concerning the twentieth century must acknowledge the tremendous impact that science and technol- ogy exerted and continue to exert on political, economic, military, and social developments. To better comprehend a global history of science, it is also crucial to include Germany’s most prominent research organization: The Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science (MPG). Despite the existence of numerous institute chronicles and selected anniversary editions, the overall development of the MPG— historically situated in more than 80 institutes with more than 250 research service departments (of which approximately 50 have reached into the wider field of neuroscience, behavioral science, and cognitive science)—it remains largely terra incognita from a scholarly perspective. From June 2014 to December 2022, the Research Program on the History of the Max Planck Society (GMPG) opened previously neglected vistas on contemporary history, academic politics, and eco- nomic developments of the Federal Republic of Germany and its international relations by raising questions such as these: Who were the key scientific actors? In what networks did they work? In what fields had the MPG paved the way for cutting-edge innovations? What were its successes and where did it fail? In what ways were its institu- tional structures connected to its scientific achievements and its his- torical legacies? What is specific about the MPG in comparison to other national institutions in and outside of Germany? These questions relate to the emerging interdisciplinary field of the neurosciences. They refer in part to the MPG’s founding years—from the late 1940s to the mid-1960s—which faced significant challenges for a “normalization process” in biomedical research and the burgeoning field of neuroscience. This special issue of the Journal of the History of the Neurosciences is composed of an introduction, five articles, and two neuroscience history interviews. It reflects on the multifold dimensions of behavioral psychology, brain research, and cognitive science devel- opments at the MPG since its beginning through the reopening of several former Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes. After World War II, the extra- university research society—named in honor of physicist Max Planck (1858–1947)—was eventually established in the British Occupation Zone in 1946, in the American Zone in 1948, and in 1949 in the French Zone, unifying the MPG as the successor umbrella organization of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes (KWIs), now transformed into Max Planck Institutes. Chronologically, the research period covered in this special issue ranges from 1948 to 2002.

Datenintegration und die Verfügbarmachung großer Textkorpora als Quellen für die zeitgeschichtlic... more Datenintegration und die Verfügbarmachung großer Textkorpora als Quellen für die zeitgeschichtliche Forschung, insbesondere in der Wissenschaftsgeschichte, stellen immer noch eine große Herausforderung dar. In unserem Beitrag stellen wir Methoden und Tools vor, die dieser Herausforderung begegnen und Lösungsansätze aufzeigen sollen. Vorgestellt wird dieses am Beispiel des auf 7 Jahre angelegten Forschungsprogramms zur Geschichte der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (MPG), das im Juni 2014 begonnen wurde. 1 Ziel des Forschungsprogramms ist die Geschichte der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft von ihrer Gründung im Jahre 1948 bis zum Ende der Präsidentschaft von Hubert Markl 2002 aufzuarbeiten. Ziel ist es hierbei nicht eine additive Geschichte der 80 existierenden und 20 geschlossenen Institute der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zu schreiben, sondern im Zentrum stehen institutsübergreifende Fragestellungen zu Themenfeldern wie Periodisierungen, Innovationen, Internationalisierung, Forschung und Wirtschaft, Gender und Wissenschaft sowie Konkurrenz und Kooperation. Ein weiteres Ergebnis des Forschungsprogramms wird es sein, konzeptionelle und epistemologische Perspektiven aufzeigen, wie aus der elektronischen Quellen-und Datenüberlieferung ein digitales Forschungsarchiv generiert werden kann. Damit werden der MPG als Wissenschaftsorganisation neue selbstreflexive Erkenntnismöglichkeiten aus diesen digitalen Wissensspeichern eröffnet.

The Institutionalization of Science in Early Modern Europe, 2019

One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences, 2017

In 1944 and 1945 scientists and physicians in the Allied military intelligence gathered evidence ... more In 1944 and 1945 scientists and physicians in the Allied military intelligence gathered evidence on the criminal human experiments with chemical weapons conducted on inmates of the Nazi concentration camps in Sachsenhausen, Natzweiler, and Neuengamme during World War II. Some of the experiments were judged during the Nuremberg Medical Trial (Case I) and French military tribunals at Metz and Lyon after liberation. Based on this evidence and on further archival sources, this paper will examine the preconditions and settings of these experiments, the perpetrators involved, and what is known about their purpose and outcome. Furthermore, the paper will raise the question if and how the experiments in the concentration camps were linked to other experiments conducted in Nazi Germany for the Wehrmacht at military research establishments such as the Gas Protection Laboratory (Heeresgasschutzlaboratorium) in Spandau, the Militärärztliche Akademie, the Heeresversuchsstelle Raubkammer, or by universities. The paper will focus on experiments with chemical agents in German concentration camps and analyze how rivalry and division of labor between the military and the SS in human experimentation with chemical agents went hand in hand. 1 Organizational Structures of Chemical Warfare Research in Germany Chemical warfare research in military and academic contexts is generally an issue of secrecy. It encompasses screening, identification of potential chemical agents suitable for use as weapons, means and methods for their large-scale industrial production, storage and deployment, as well as defensive research in toxicology on animals and humans. It also includes possible medical prophylaxis and treatments, as well as measures and technologies for detecting chemical agents and protecting soldiers and civilians against the severe injuries and health risks involved. In contrast to other fields of scientific research, most of the results on chemical warfare

Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, 2006

As a side-product of industrial research, new chemical nerve agents (Tabun, Sarin, Soman) superio... more As a side-product of industrial research, new chemical nerve agents (Tabun, Sarin, Soman) superior to those available to the Allied Forces were discovered in Nazi Germany. These agents were never used by Germany, even though they were produced at a large scale. This article explores the toxicological and physiological research into the mechanisms of action of these novel nerve agents, and the emergence of military research objectives in neurophysiological and neurotoxicological research. Recently declassified Allied military intelligence files document secret nerve agent research, leading to intensified research on anticholinesterase agents in the peripheral and the central nervous system. The article discusses the involvement of IG Farben scientists, educational, medical and military institutions, and of Nobel Prize laureate Richard Kuhn, director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research.

Social Studies of Science, 2008

Journal of the History of the Neurosciences

To further our understanding of the transformations of the modern, globalized world, historical r... more To further our understanding of the transformations of the modern, globalized world, historical research concerning the twentieth century must acknowledge the tremendous impact that science and technol- ogy exerted and continue to exert on political, economic, military, and social developments. To better comprehend a global history of science, it is also crucial to include Germany’s most prominent research organization: The Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science (MPG). Despite the existence of numerous institute chronicles and selected anniversary editions, the overall development of the MPG— historically situated in more than 80 institutes with more than 250 research service departments (of which approximately 50 have reached into the wider field of neuroscience, behavioral science, and cognitive science)—it remains largely terra incognita from a scholarly perspective. From June 2014 to December 2022, the Research Program on the History of the Max Planck Society (GMPG) opened previously neglected vistas on contemporary history, academic politics, and eco- nomic developments of the Federal Republic of Germany and its international relations by raising questions such as these: Who were the key scientific actors? In what networks did they work? In what fields had the MPG paved the way for cutting-edge innovations? What were its successes and where did it fail? In what ways were its institu- tional structures connected to its scientific achievements and its his- torical legacies? What is specific about the MPG in comparison to other national institutions in and outside of Germany? These questions relate to the emerging interdisciplinary field of the neurosciences. They refer in part to the MPG’s founding years—from the late 1940s to the mid-1960s—which faced significant challenges for a “normalization process” in biomedical research and the burgeoning field of neuroscience. This special issue of the Journal of the History of the Neurosciences is composed of an introduction, five articles, and two neuroscience history interviews. It reflects on the multifold dimensions of behavioral psychology, brain research, and cognitive science devel- opments at the MPG since its beginning through the reopening of several former Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes. After World War II, the extra- university research society—named in honor of physicist Max Planck (1858–1947)—was eventually established in the British Occupation Zone in 1946, in the American Zone in 1948, and in 1949 in the French Zone, unifying the MPG as the successor umbrella organization of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes (KWIs), now transformed into Max Planck Institutes. Chronologically, the research period covered in this special issue ranges from 1948 to 2002.

Datenintegration und die Verfügbarmachung großer Textkorpora als Quellen für die zeitgeschichtlic... more Datenintegration und die Verfügbarmachung großer Textkorpora als Quellen für die zeitgeschichtliche Forschung, insbesondere in der Wissenschaftsgeschichte, stellen immer noch eine große Herausforderung dar. In unserem Beitrag stellen wir Methoden und Tools vor, die dieser Herausforderung begegnen und Lösungsansätze aufzeigen sollen. Vorgestellt wird dieses am Beispiel des auf 7 Jahre angelegten Forschungsprogramms zur Geschichte der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (MPG), das im Juni 2014 begonnen wurde. 1 Ziel des Forschungsprogramms ist die Geschichte der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft von ihrer Gründung im Jahre 1948 bis zum Ende der Präsidentschaft von Hubert Markl 2002 aufzuarbeiten. Ziel ist es hierbei nicht eine additive Geschichte der 80 existierenden und 20 geschlossenen Institute der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zu schreiben, sondern im Zentrum stehen institutsübergreifende Fragestellungen zu Themenfeldern wie Periodisierungen, Innovationen, Internationalisierung, Forschung und Wirtschaft, Gender und Wissenschaft sowie Konkurrenz und Kooperation. Ein weiteres Ergebnis des Forschungsprogramms wird es sein, konzeptionelle und epistemologische Perspektiven aufzeigen, wie aus der elektronischen Quellen-und Datenüberlieferung ein digitales Forschungsarchiv generiert werden kann. Damit werden der MPG als Wissenschaftsorganisation neue selbstreflexive Erkenntnismöglichkeiten aus diesen digitalen Wissensspeichern eröffnet.

The Institutionalization of Science in Early Modern Europe, 2019

One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences, 2017

In 1944 and 1945 scientists and physicians in the Allied military intelligence gathered evidence ... more In 1944 and 1945 scientists and physicians in the Allied military intelligence gathered evidence on the criminal human experiments with chemical weapons conducted on inmates of the Nazi concentration camps in Sachsenhausen, Natzweiler, and Neuengamme during World War II. Some of the experiments were judged during the Nuremberg Medical Trial (Case I) and French military tribunals at Metz and Lyon after liberation. Based on this evidence and on further archival sources, this paper will examine the preconditions and settings of these experiments, the perpetrators involved, and what is known about their purpose and outcome. Furthermore, the paper will raise the question if and how the experiments in the concentration camps were linked to other experiments conducted in Nazi Germany for the Wehrmacht at military research establishments such as the Gas Protection Laboratory (Heeresgasschutzlaboratorium) in Spandau, the Militärärztliche Akademie, the Heeresversuchsstelle Raubkammer, or by universities. The paper will focus on experiments with chemical agents in German concentration camps and analyze how rivalry and division of labor between the military and the SS in human experimentation with chemical agents went hand in hand. 1 Organizational Structures of Chemical Warfare Research in Germany Chemical warfare research in military and academic contexts is generally an issue of secrecy. It encompasses screening, identification of potential chemical agents suitable for use as weapons, means and methods for their large-scale industrial production, storage and deployment, as well as defensive research in toxicology on animals and humans. It also includes possible medical prophylaxis and treatments, as well as measures and technologies for detecting chemical agents and protecting soldiers and civilians against the severe injuries and health risks involved. In contrast to other fields of scientific research, most of the results on chemical warfare

Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, 2006

As a side-product of industrial research, new chemical nerve agents (Tabun, Sarin, Soman) superio... more As a side-product of industrial research, new chemical nerve agents (Tabun, Sarin, Soman) superior to those available to the Allied Forces were discovered in Nazi Germany. These agents were never used by Germany, even though they were produced at a large scale. This article explores the toxicological and physiological research into the mechanisms of action of these novel nerve agents, and the emergence of military research objectives in neurophysiological and neurotoxicological research. Recently declassified Allied military intelligence files document secret nerve agent research, leading to intensified research on anticholinesterase agents in the peripheral and the central nervous system. The article discusses the involvement of IG Farben scientists, educational, medical and military institutions, and of Nobel Prize laureate Richard Kuhn, director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research.

Social Studies of Science, 2008