Galina Weinstein - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Galina Weinstein

Around 1936, Einstein wrote to his close friend Max Born telling him that, together with Nathan R... more Around 1936, Einstein wrote to his close friend Max Born telling him that, together with Nathan Rosen, he had arrived at the interesting result that gravitational waves did not exist, though they had been assumed a certainty to the first approximation. He finally had found a mistake in his 1936 paper with Rosen and believed that gravitational waves do exist. However, in 1938, Einstein again obtained the result that there could be no gravitational waves!

In his 1916 groundbreaking general relativity paper Einstein had imposed a restrictive coordinate... more In his 1916 groundbreaking general relativity paper Einstein had imposed a restrictive coordinate condition; his field equations were valid for a system –g = 1. Later, Einstein published a paper on gravitational waves. The solution presented in this paper did not satisfy the above restrictive condition. In his gravitational waves paper, Einstein concluded that gravitational fields propagate at the speed of light. The solution is the Minkowski flat metric plus a small disturbance propagating in a flat space-time. Einstein calculated the small deviation from Minkowski metric in a manner analogous to that of retarded potentials in electrodynamics. However, in obtaining the above derivation, Einstein made a mathematical error. This error caused him to obtain three different types of waves compatible with his approximate field equations: longitudinal waves, transverse waves and a new type of wave. Einstein added an Addendum in which he suggested that in a system –g = 1 only waves of the third type occur and these waves transport energy. He became obsessed with his system –g = 1. Einstein's colleagues demonstrated to him that in the coordinate system –g = 1 the gravitational wave of a mass point carry no energy, but Einstein tried to persuade them that he had actually not made a mistake in his gravitational waves paper. Einstein, however, eventually accepted his colleagues results and dropped the restrictive condition –g = 1. This finally led him to discover plane transverse gravitational waves.

This book focuses on Albert Einstein and his interactions with, and responses to, various scienti... more This book focuses on Albert Einstein and his interactions with, and responses to, various scientists, both famous and lesser-known. It takes as its starting point that the discussions between Einstein and other scientists all represented a contribution to the edifice of general relativity and relativistic cosmology. These scientists with whom Einstein implicitly or explicitly interacted form a complicated web of collaboration, which this study explores, focusing on their implicit and explicit responses to Einstein's work. This analysis uncovers latent undercurrents, indiscernible to other approaches to tracking the intellectual pathway of Einstein to his general theory of relativity. The interconnections and interactions presented here reveal the central figures who influenced Einstein during this intellectual period. Despite current approaches to history presupposing that the efforts of scientists such as Max Abraham and Gunnar Nordström, which differed from Einstein’s own views, be relegated to the background, this book shows that they all had an impact on the development of Einstein’s theories, stressing the limits of approaches focusing solely on Einstein. As such, General Relativity Conflict and Rivalries proves that the general theory of relativity was not developed as a single, coherent construction by an isolated, brooding individual, but, rather, that it came to fruition through Einstein's conflicts and interactions with other scientists, and was consolidated by his creative processes during these exchanges.

Einstein's first mention of the uniformly rotating disk in print was in 1912, in his paper dealin... more Einstein's first mention of the uniformly rotating disk in print was in 1912, in his paper dealing with the static gravitational fields. After the 1912 paper, the rotating disk problem occurred in Einstein's writings only in a 1916 review paper, "The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity". Einstein did not mention the rotating disk problem in any of his papers on gravitation theory from 1912 until 1916. However, between 1912 and 1914 Einstein invoked the Hole Argument. I discuss the possible connection between the 1912 rotating disk problem and the Hole Argument and the connection between the 1916 rotating disk problem and the Point Coincident Argument. Finally, according to Mach's ideas we see that the possibility of an empty hole is unacceptable. In 1916 Einstein replaced the Hole Argument with the Point Coincidence Argument and later in 1918 with Mach's principle.

Einstein's biographer Albrecht Fölsing explained: Einstein presented his field equations on Novem... more Einstein's biographer Albrecht Fölsing explained: Einstein presented his field equations on November 25, 1915, but six days earlier, on November 20, Hilbert had derived the identical field equations for which Einstein had been searching such a long time. On November 18 Hilbert had sent Einstein a letter with a certain draft, and Fölsing asked about this possible draft: "Could Einstein, casting his eye over this paper, have discovered the term which was still lacking in his own equations, and thus 'nostrified' Hilbert?" Historical evidence support a scenario according to which Einstein discovered his final field equations by "casting his eye over" his own previous works. In November 4, 1915 Einstein wrote the components of the gravitational field and showed that a material point in a gravitational field moves on a geodesic line in space-time, the equation of which is written in terms of the Christoffel symbols. Einstein found it advantageous to use for the components of the gravitational field the Christoffel symbols. Einstein had already basically possessed the field equations in 1912, but had not recognized the formal importance of the Christoffel symbols as the components of the gravitational field. Einstein probably found the final form of the generally covariant field equations by manipulating his own (November 4, 1915) equations. Findings of other historians seem to support the scenario according to which Einstein did not "nostrify" Hilbert.

the main purpose of the present paper is to show that a correction of one mistake was crucial for... more the main purpose of the present paper is to show that a correction of one mistake was crucial for Einstein's pathway to the first version of the 1915 general theory of relativity, but also might have played a role in obtaining the final version of Einstein's 1915 field equations. In 1914 Einstein wrote the equations for conservation of energy-momentum for matter, and established a connection between these equations and the components of the gravitational field. He showed that a material point in gravitational fields moves on a geodesic line in space-time, the equation of which is written in terms of the Christoffel symbols. By November 4, 1915, Einstein found it advantageous to use for the components of the gravitational field, not the previous equation, but the Christoffel symbols. He corrected the 1914 equations of conservation of energy-momentum for matter. Einstein had already basically possessed the field equations in 1912 together with his mathematician friend Marcel Grossman, but because he had not recognized the formal importance of the Christoffel symbols as the components of the gravitational field, he could "not obtain a clear overview". Finally, considering the energy-momentum conservation equations for matter, an important similarity between equations suggests that, this equation could have assisted Einstein in obtaining the final form of the field equations (the November 25, 1915 ones) that were generally covariant.

In 1915, Einstein wrote the vacuum (matter-free) field equations in the form: 1 for all systems o... more In 1915, Einstein wrote the vacuum (matter-free) field equations in the form: 1 for all systems of coordinates for which It is sufficient to note that the left-hand side represents the gravitational field, with g  the metric tensor field.

Gamow wrote that much later, when he was discussing cosmological problems with Einstein,

In 1917 Einstein introduced into his field equations a cosmological term having the cosmological ... more In 1917 Einstein introduced into his field equations a cosmological term having the cosmological constant as a coefficient, in order that the theory should yield a static universe. Einstein desired to eliminate absolute space from physics according to "Mach's ideas". De Sitter objected to the "world-matter" in Einstein's world, and proposed a vacuum solution of Einstein's field equations with the cosmological constant and with no "worldmatter". In 1920 the world-matter of Einstein's world was equivalent to "Mach's Ether", a carrier of the effects of inertia. De Sitter's 1917 solution predicted a spectral shift effect. In 1923 Eddington and Weyl adopted De Sitter's model and studied this effect. Einstein objected to this "cosmological problem". In 1922-1927, Friedmann and Lamaitre published dynamical universe models. Friedmann's model with cosmological constant equal to zero was the simplest general relativity universe. Einstein was willing to accept the mathematics, but not the physics of a dynamical universe. In 1929 Hubble announced the discovery that the actual universe is apparently expanding. In 1931 Einstein accepted Friedmann's model with a cosmological constant equal to zero, which he previously abhorred; he claimed that one did not need the cosmological term anymore. It was very typical to Einstein that he used to do a theoretical work and he cared about experiments and observations. This paper is a new interpretation to Einstein's cosmological considerations over the period 1917-1931.

In 1905 the well-known physicist Max Planck was coeditor of the Annalen der Physik, and he accept... more In 1905 the well-known physicist Max Planck was coeditor of the Annalen der Physik, and he accepted Einstein's paper on light quanta for publication, even though he disliked the idea of "light quanta". Einstein's relativity paper was received by the Annalen der Physik at the end of June 1905 and Planck was the first scientist to notice Einstein's relativity theory and to report favorably on it. In the 1905 relativity paper Einstein used a seemingly conventional notion, "light complex", and he did not invoke his novel quanta of light heuristic with respect to the principle of relativity. He chose the language "light complex" for which no clear definition could be given. But with hindsight, in 1905 Einstein made exactly the right choice not to mix concepts from his quantum paper with those from his relativity paper. He focused on the solution of his relativity problem, whose far-reaching perspectives Planck already sensed.

Upon reading Einstein's views on quantum incompleteness in publications or in his correspondence ... more Upon reading Einstein's views on quantum incompleteness in publications or in his correspondence after 1935 (the EPR paradox), one gets a very intense feeling of deja-vu. Einstein presents a quantum hole argument, which somewhat reminds of the hole argument in his 1914 "Entwurf" theory of general relativity. PBR write in their paper, "An important step towards the derivation of our result is the idea that the quantum state is physical if distinct quantum states correspond to non-overlapping distributions for [physical states] λ". PBR then conclude, "The general notion that two distinct quantum states may describe the same state of reality, however, has a long history. For example, in a letter to Schrödinger containing a variant of the famous EPR (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen) argument", and they refer to Einstein's quantum hole argument. This short paper discusses the PBR theorem, and the connection between the PBR argument and Einstein's argument and solution.

Between 1905 and 1907, Einstein first tried to extend the special theory of relativity in such a ... more Between 1905 and 1907, Einstein first tried to extend the special theory of relativity in such a way so as to explain gravitational phenomena. This was the most natural and simplest path to be taken. These investigations did not fit in with Galileo's law of free fall. This law, which may also be formulated as the law of the equality of inertial and gravitational mass, was illuminating Einstein, and he suspected that in it must lie the key to a deeper understanding of inertia and gravitation. Einstein's 1907 breakthrough was to consider Galileo's law of free fall as a powerful argument in favor of expanding the principle of relativity to systems moving non-uniformly relative to each other. Einstein realized that he might be able to generalize the principle of relativity when guided by Galileo's law of free fall; for if one body fell differently from all others in the gravitational field, then with the help of this body an observer in free fall (with all other bodies) could find out that he was falling in a gravitational field.

This paper deals with four topics: The first subject is Abraham's spherical electron, Lorentz's c... more This paper deals with four topics: The first subject is Abraham's spherical electron, Lorentz's contracted electron and Bücherer's electron. The second topic is Einstein's 1905 relativity theory of the motion of an electron. Einstein obtained expressions for the longitudinal and transverse masses of the electron using the principle of relativity and that of the constancy of the velocity of light. The third topic is Einstein's reply to Ehrenfest's query. Einstein's above solution appeared to Ehrenfest very similar to Lorentz's one: a deformed electron. Einstein commented on Ehrenfest's paper and characterized his work as a theory of principle and reasoned that beyond kinematics, the 1905 heuristic relativity principle could offer new connections between non-kinematical concepts. The final topic is Kaufmann's experiments. Kaufmann concluded that his measuring procedures were not compatible with the hypothesis posited by Lorentz and Einstein. However, unlike Ehrenfest, he gave the first clear account of the basic theoretical difference between Lorentz's and Einstein's views. Finally, Bücherer conducted experiments that confirmed Lorentz's and Einstein's models; Max Born analyzed the problem of a rigid body and showed the existence of a limited class of rigid motions, and concluded, "The main result was a confirmation of Lorentz's formula".

Childhood and Schooldays: Albert Einstein, and the family members seemed to have exaggerated the ... more Childhood and Schooldays: Albert Einstein, and the family members seemed to have exaggerated the story of Albert who developed slowly, learned to talk late, and whose parents thought he was abnormal. These and other stories were adopted by biographers as if they really happened in the form that Albert and his sister told them. Hence biographers were inspired by them to create a mythical public image of Albert Einstein. Albert had tendency toward temper tantrums, the young impudent rebel Einstein had an impulsive and upright nature. He rebelled against authority and refused to learn by rote. He could not easily bring himself to study what did not interest him at school, especially humanistic subjects. And so his sister told the story that his Greek professor, to whom he once submitted an especially poor paper, went so far in his anger to declare that nothing would ever become of him. Albert learned subjects in advance when it came to sciences; and during the vacation of a few months from school, Albert independently worked his way through the entire prospective Gymnasium syllabus. He also taught himself natural science, geometry and philosophy by reading books that he obtained from a poor Jewish medical student of Polish nationality, Max Talmud, and from his uncle Jacob Einstein.

Around 1936, Einstein wrote to his close friend Max Born telling him that, together with Nathan R... more Around 1936, Einstein wrote to his close friend Max Born telling him that, together with Nathan Rosen, he had arrived at the interesting result that gravitational waves did not exist, though they had been assumed a certainty to the first approximation. He finally had found a mistake in his 1936 paper with Rosen and believed that gravitational waves do exist. However, in 1938, Einstein again obtained the result that there could be no gravitational waves!

In his 1916 groundbreaking general relativity paper Einstein had imposed a restrictive coordinate... more In his 1916 groundbreaking general relativity paper Einstein had imposed a restrictive coordinate condition; his field equations were valid for a system –g = 1. Later, Einstein published a paper on gravitational waves. The solution presented in this paper did not satisfy the above restrictive condition. In his gravitational waves paper, Einstein concluded that gravitational fields propagate at the speed of light. The solution is the Minkowski flat metric plus a small disturbance propagating in a flat space-time. Einstein calculated the small deviation from Minkowski metric in a manner analogous to that of retarded potentials in electrodynamics. However, in obtaining the above derivation, Einstein made a mathematical error. This error caused him to obtain three different types of waves compatible with his approximate field equations: longitudinal waves, transverse waves and a new type of wave. Einstein added an Addendum in which he suggested that in a system –g = 1 only waves of the third type occur and these waves transport energy. He became obsessed with his system –g = 1. Einstein's colleagues demonstrated to him that in the coordinate system –g = 1 the gravitational wave of a mass point carry no energy, but Einstein tried to persuade them that he had actually not made a mistake in his gravitational waves paper. Einstein, however, eventually accepted his colleagues results and dropped the restrictive condition –g = 1. This finally led him to discover plane transverse gravitational waves.

This book focuses on Albert Einstein and his interactions with, and responses to, various scienti... more This book focuses on Albert Einstein and his interactions with, and responses to, various scientists, both famous and lesser-known. It takes as its starting point that the discussions between Einstein and other scientists all represented a contribution to the edifice of general relativity and relativistic cosmology. These scientists with whom Einstein implicitly or explicitly interacted form a complicated web of collaboration, which this study explores, focusing on their implicit and explicit responses to Einstein's work. This analysis uncovers latent undercurrents, indiscernible to other approaches to tracking the intellectual pathway of Einstein to his general theory of relativity. The interconnections and interactions presented here reveal the central figures who influenced Einstein during this intellectual period. Despite current approaches to history presupposing that the efforts of scientists such as Max Abraham and Gunnar Nordström, which differed from Einstein’s own views, be relegated to the background, this book shows that they all had an impact on the development of Einstein’s theories, stressing the limits of approaches focusing solely on Einstein. As such, General Relativity Conflict and Rivalries proves that the general theory of relativity was not developed as a single, coherent construction by an isolated, brooding individual, but, rather, that it came to fruition through Einstein's conflicts and interactions with other scientists, and was consolidated by his creative processes during these exchanges.

Einstein's first mention of the uniformly rotating disk in print was in 1912, in his paper dealin... more Einstein's first mention of the uniformly rotating disk in print was in 1912, in his paper dealing with the static gravitational fields. After the 1912 paper, the rotating disk problem occurred in Einstein's writings only in a 1916 review paper, "The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity". Einstein did not mention the rotating disk problem in any of his papers on gravitation theory from 1912 until 1916. However, between 1912 and 1914 Einstein invoked the Hole Argument. I discuss the possible connection between the 1912 rotating disk problem and the Hole Argument and the connection between the 1916 rotating disk problem and the Point Coincident Argument. Finally, according to Mach's ideas we see that the possibility of an empty hole is unacceptable. In 1916 Einstein replaced the Hole Argument with the Point Coincidence Argument and later in 1918 with Mach's principle.

Einstein's biographer Albrecht Fölsing explained: Einstein presented his field equations on Novem... more Einstein's biographer Albrecht Fölsing explained: Einstein presented his field equations on November 25, 1915, but six days earlier, on November 20, Hilbert had derived the identical field equations for which Einstein had been searching such a long time. On November 18 Hilbert had sent Einstein a letter with a certain draft, and Fölsing asked about this possible draft: "Could Einstein, casting his eye over this paper, have discovered the term which was still lacking in his own equations, and thus 'nostrified' Hilbert?" Historical evidence support a scenario according to which Einstein discovered his final field equations by "casting his eye over" his own previous works. In November 4, 1915 Einstein wrote the components of the gravitational field and showed that a material point in a gravitational field moves on a geodesic line in space-time, the equation of which is written in terms of the Christoffel symbols. Einstein found it advantageous to use for the components of the gravitational field the Christoffel symbols. Einstein had already basically possessed the field equations in 1912, but had not recognized the formal importance of the Christoffel symbols as the components of the gravitational field. Einstein probably found the final form of the generally covariant field equations by manipulating his own (November 4, 1915) equations. Findings of other historians seem to support the scenario according to which Einstein did not "nostrify" Hilbert.

the main purpose of the present paper is to show that a correction of one mistake was crucial for... more the main purpose of the present paper is to show that a correction of one mistake was crucial for Einstein's pathway to the first version of the 1915 general theory of relativity, but also might have played a role in obtaining the final version of Einstein's 1915 field equations. In 1914 Einstein wrote the equations for conservation of energy-momentum for matter, and established a connection between these equations and the components of the gravitational field. He showed that a material point in gravitational fields moves on a geodesic line in space-time, the equation of which is written in terms of the Christoffel symbols. By November 4, 1915, Einstein found it advantageous to use for the components of the gravitational field, not the previous equation, but the Christoffel symbols. He corrected the 1914 equations of conservation of energy-momentum for matter. Einstein had already basically possessed the field equations in 1912 together with his mathematician friend Marcel Grossman, but because he had not recognized the formal importance of the Christoffel symbols as the components of the gravitational field, he could "not obtain a clear overview". Finally, considering the energy-momentum conservation equations for matter, an important similarity between equations suggests that, this equation could have assisted Einstein in obtaining the final form of the field equations (the November 25, 1915 ones) that were generally covariant.

In 1915, Einstein wrote the vacuum (matter-free) field equations in the form: 1 for all systems o... more In 1915, Einstein wrote the vacuum (matter-free) field equations in the form: 1 for all systems of coordinates for which It is sufficient to note that the left-hand side represents the gravitational field, with g  the metric tensor field.

Gamow wrote that much later, when he was discussing cosmological problems with Einstein,

In 1917 Einstein introduced into his field equations a cosmological term having the cosmological ... more In 1917 Einstein introduced into his field equations a cosmological term having the cosmological constant as a coefficient, in order that the theory should yield a static universe. Einstein desired to eliminate absolute space from physics according to "Mach's ideas". De Sitter objected to the "world-matter" in Einstein's world, and proposed a vacuum solution of Einstein's field equations with the cosmological constant and with no "worldmatter". In 1920 the world-matter of Einstein's world was equivalent to "Mach's Ether", a carrier of the effects of inertia. De Sitter's 1917 solution predicted a spectral shift effect. In 1923 Eddington and Weyl adopted De Sitter's model and studied this effect. Einstein objected to this "cosmological problem". In 1922-1927, Friedmann and Lamaitre published dynamical universe models. Friedmann's model with cosmological constant equal to zero was the simplest general relativity universe. Einstein was willing to accept the mathematics, but not the physics of a dynamical universe. In 1929 Hubble announced the discovery that the actual universe is apparently expanding. In 1931 Einstein accepted Friedmann's model with a cosmological constant equal to zero, which he previously abhorred; he claimed that one did not need the cosmological term anymore. It was very typical to Einstein that he used to do a theoretical work and he cared about experiments and observations. This paper is a new interpretation to Einstein's cosmological considerations over the period 1917-1931.

In 1905 the well-known physicist Max Planck was coeditor of the Annalen der Physik, and he accept... more In 1905 the well-known physicist Max Planck was coeditor of the Annalen der Physik, and he accepted Einstein's paper on light quanta for publication, even though he disliked the idea of "light quanta". Einstein's relativity paper was received by the Annalen der Physik at the end of June 1905 and Planck was the first scientist to notice Einstein's relativity theory and to report favorably on it. In the 1905 relativity paper Einstein used a seemingly conventional notion, "light complex", and he did not invoke his novel quanta of light heuristic with respect to the principle of relativity. He chose the language "light complex" for which no clear definition could be given. But with hindsight, in 1905 Einstein made exactly the right choice not to mix concepts from his quantum paper with those from his relativity paper. He focused on the solution of his relativity problem, whose far-reaching perspectives Planck already sensed.

Upon reading Einstein's views on quantum incompleteness in publications or in his correspondence ... more Upon reading Einstein's views on quantum incompleteness in publications or in his correspondence after 1935 (the EPR paradox), one gets a very intense feeling of deja-vu. Einstein presents a quantum hole argument, which somewhat reminds of the hole argument in his 1914 "Entwurf" theory of general relativity. PBR write in their paper, "An important step towards the derivation of our result is the idea that the quantum state is physical if distinct quantum states correspond to non-overlapping distributions for [physical states] λ". PBR then conclude, "The general notion that two distinct quantum states may describe the same state of reality, however, has a long history. For example, in a letter to Schrödinger containing a variant of the famous EPR (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen) argument", and they refer to Einstein's quantum hole argument. This short paper discusses the PBR theorem, and the connection between the PBR argument and Einstein's argument and solution.

Between 1905 and 1907, Einstein first tried to extend the special theory of relativity in such a ... more Between 1905 and 1907, Einstein first tried to extend the special theory of relativity in such a way so as to explain gravitational phenomena. This was the most natural and simplest path to be taken. These investigations did not fit in with Galileo's law of free fall. This law, which may also be formulated as the law of the equality of inertial and gravitational mass, was illuminating Einstein, and he suspected that in it must lie the key to a deeper understanding of inertia and gravitation. Einstein's 1907 breakthrough was to consider Galileo's law of free fall as a powerful argument in favor of expanding the principle of relativity to systems moving non-uniformly relative to each other. Einstein realized that he might be able to generalize the principle of relativity when guided by Galileo's law of free fall; for if one body fell differently from all others in the gravitational field, then with the help of this body an observer in free fall (with all other bodies) could find out that he was falling in a gravitational field.

This paper deals with four topics: The first subject is Abraham's spherical electron, Lorentz's c... more This paper deals with four topics: The first subject is Abraham's spherical electron, Lorentz's contracted electron and Bücherer's electron. The second topic is Einstein's 1905 relativity theory of the motion of an electron. Einstein obtained expressions for the longitudinal and transverse masses of the electron using the principle of relativity and that of the constancy of the velocity of light. The third topic is Einstein's reply to Ehrenfest's query. Einstein's above solution appeared to Ehrenfest very similar to Lorentz's one: a deformed electron. Einstein commented on Ehrenfest's paper and characterized his work as a theory of principle and reasoned that beyond kinematics, the 1905 heuristic relativity principle could offer new connections between non-kinematical concepts. The final topic is Kaufmann's experiments. Kaufmann concluded that his measuring procedures were not compatible with the hypothesis posited by Lorentz and Einstein. However, unlike Ehrenfest, he gave the first clear account of the basic theoretical difference between Lorentz's and Einstein's views. Finally, Bücherer conducted experiments that confirmed Lorentz's and Einstein's models; Max Born analyzed the problem of a rigid body and showed the existence of a limited class of rigid motions, and concluded, "The main result was a confirmation of Lorentz's formula".

Childhood and Schooldays: Albert Einstein, and the family members seemed to have exaggerated the ... more Childhood and Schooldays: Albert Einstein, and the family members seemed to have exaggerated the story of Albert who developed slowly, learned to talk late, and whose parents thought he was abnormal. These and other stories were adopted by biographers as if they really happened in the form that Albert and his sister told them. Hence biographers were inspired by them to create a mythical public image of Albert Einstein. Albert had tendency toward temper tantrums, the young impudent rebel Einstein had an impulsive and upright nature. He rebelled against authority and refused to learn by rote. He could not easily bring himself to study what did not interest him at school, especially humanistic subjects. And so his sister told the story that his Greek professor, to whom he once submitted an especially poor paper, went so far in his anger to declare that nothing would ever become of him. Albert learned subjects in advance when it came to sciences; and during the vacation of a few months from school, Albert independently worked his way through the entire prospective Gymnasium syllabus. He also taught himself natural science, geometry and philosophy by reading books that he obtained from a poor Jewish medical student of Polish nationality, Max Talmud, and from his uncle Jacob Einstein.