Bob Hamlin - Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Books by Bob Hamlin
Abstract: We conduct an emic replication study of managerial and leadership effectiveness in UAE,... more Abstract: We conduct an emic replication study of managerial and leadership effectiveness in UAE, thereby addressing the paucity in extant literature of indigenous management research in non-Western countries. Second, we compare our findings from the UAE study with those from a similar study previously conducted by author 3 in Egypt, to reveal that there are considerable similarities in the perceived effectiveness and ineffectiveness of managerial behavior across these two countries, but also considerable differences. Finally and most importantly, we examine the findings from the two studies through the combined conceptual lenses of Islamic Work Ethics (IWE) and Islamic Leadership (IL). We find that more than half of positive and negative Behavioral Statements emerging from these studies are grounded in the principles of IWE and IL, implying that these principles exercise significant influence on followers’ Implicit Leadership Theories, and consequently their perceptions of managerial and leader behaviors. Theoretical and managerial implications are also offered.
Papers by Bob Hamlin
Human Resource Development International, 2011
The purpose of this study was to compare the perceptions of Mexican and US employees about effect... more The purpose of this study was to compare the perceptions of Mexican and US employees about effective and ineffective managerial behaviour. Design/methodology/approach A qualitative multiple cross-case comparative analysis of findings obtained from two past emic replication studies of observed effective and ineffective managerial behaviour carried out in Mexico and the USA respectively was conducted. Findings Notwithstanding the significant cultural variances between Mexico and the US underlined by various cross-cultural studies, our findings suggest that Mexican and US employees perceive effective and ineffective managerial behaviour in a very similar manner. Research limitations While the results of our study suggest that culture may not play a significant role in the way people perceive managerial and leadership effectiveness, we suggest that more replication studies with larger and more balanced gender samples using different methods need to be performed in both countries. Practical implications The findings of our study may be relevant for HRD professionals in both countries when providing training to expatriates for international assignments. Reinforcing the set of managerial practices that are perceived as effective in these two countries, and emphasizing those practices that may be particular to Mexico and the US respectively, could lead to an improvement in the performance of Mexican executives managing in the US and US executives managing in Mexico.
In support of research-based organisation change and development through professional partnerships
This paper presents arguments in support of evidence-based healthcare management, drawing on orga... more This paper presents arguments in support of evidence-based healthcare management, drawing on organisationally based empirical research, set within an NHS Trust Hospital in the UK. The research focuses on identifying the criteria of managerial effectiveness applying at the middle and front line management levels of the organisation, using critical incident technique and factor analysis methods. It appears that the self-perceptions of managers and the perceptions of their superiors and subordinates are very similar, and only differ on a limited number of criteria. This challenges the ‘perspectivespecific’ models of managerial effectiveness advocated by some researchers. The results are compared against those from an equivalent study carried out within one part of HM Customs & Excise, a major department of the British Civil Service. The findings suggest the existence of generalised criteria of managerial effectiveness, supporting the notion of the ‘universally effective manager’. This ...
This paper provides a review and synthesis of current practice in the field of Organisation Chang... more This paper provides a review and synthesis of current practice in the field of Organisation Change and Development (OCD). Five key 'failings' of managers contributing to the low success rate of OCD programmes are identified. To overcome these 'failings' a case is made for more evidence and research - based OCD practice, particularly OD initiatives informed and shaped by organisationally based research facilitated through 'university-organisation' professional partnerships of the kind advocated by Jacobs (1997). A framework conceptualising OCD Professional Partnerships is presented. This suggests an integrative and cyclical process connecting OCD research and consultancy which follow a similar sequence of stages with outcomes that are mutually beneficial and reinforcing. A UK example of an OCD Professional Partnership set within one part of the British Civil Service is presented which demonstrates how OCD practice can be profoundly influenced and enhanced by a...
Handbook of Research Methods on Human Resource Development
Business Leadership Review, 2007
This article presents the findings of an HRD Professional Partnership study of effective and inef... more This article presents the findings of an HRD Professional Partnership study of effective and ineffective managerial and leadership behaviours exhibited by executive leaders within the UK business of a large international telecommunications company, and describes how the research has challenged various aspects of the organisation’s company-wide competency framework and its executive leader development programme. Additionally, the article reveals and discusses the extent to which the results are generalised to the findings of several managerial and leadership effectiveness studies carried out in other UK private and public-sector organisations, and the contribution of this research to current debates concerning the universality of management and leadership, and the concept of evidence-based management. Despite various calls in the US and UK literatures for evidence-based approaches to Human Resource Development (HRD), limited progress has been made in closing the much talked about HRD research-practice gap. Nevertheless, one effective means for HRD practitioners to become evidence-based is through the HRD Professional Partnership concept as originally defined in the USA by Jacobs and strongly advocated in the UK by Hamlin. In such researcher-practitioner partnerships there is a dual goal to improve the organisation through the application of academically-rigorous applied research, whilst at the same time advancing the field of HRD knowledge. However, only a few such studies have been reported in the literature. Building upon the work of these researchers, this article primarily presents the findings of an HRD Professional Partnership research study of effective, and least effective, executive leader behaviours exhibited by directors, heads of department and other top managers within the UK business of a large global telecommunications company (which for the purpose of anonymity is referred to either as TLFN Group plc or TLFN). It also reports how these findings were used to inform and shape evidence-based HR and HRD initiatives within the company for the measurement, selection, and development of executive leaders. Additionally, the article presents the results of a comparative cross-case analysis of the TLFN findings against equivalent findings from several replica studies of manager and managerial leader effectiveness carried out within both UK private and public-sector organisations. These are then discussed within the context of current debates regarding the universality of management and leadership, and of recent calls for evidence-based management. Business Leadership Review IV:IV www.mbaworld.com/blr October 2007 Page 1 of 16 © 2007 Association of MBAs Developing Effective Leadership Behaviours: The Value of Evidence-Based Management Robert G. Hamlin, Professor Emeritus and Chair of Human Resource Development, University of Wolverhampton Business School, and Jenny Sawyer, Organisation Development Manager at The Anchor Trust Organisational and Theoretical Issues of Concern This section outlines the various organisational and theoretical issues of concern that have informed the choice of focus and design for this study. Organisational Context TLFN Group plc, which was founded in the late 1980s, has grown into a multi-national retail distribution group making profits from a range of related telecommunications services across various geographical markets worldwide. The company is structured into core business units which include the distribution of products and services that are retailed globally through its high street stores, website and interactive television; telecoms services; insurance; and repairs. The continuing growth and increasing diversity of the business led to significant changes in the dynamic at the Board and executive-leader-level of management, as reflected in certain early signs of emergent tensions, conflicts and rigidities within and between departments and teams, with some executive leaders beginning to exhibit parochial attitudes and behaviours and a silo mentality. Consequently, at the latter end of 2004 the Director of Human Resources decided to develop a new role and function specifically focused on talent management. The aims of this new function were to facilitate a one-company organisational and management culture, help grow the human capability required to support the continuing business expansion and diversification, develop consistent and transparent performance management across the UK business, help enhance the employee experience so as to retain and attract the best talent, and to create consistency and best practice in the development of quality leadership and management within the organisation. This called for a better understanding of the evolving management culture of TLFN in its UK business, as reflected by the managerial and leadership behaviour of top and senior managers operating at the executive-leader-level of the company. Consequently, it was decided to…
Online Submission, Feb 1, 2008
During the past few years, the growth of an emergent 'coaching industry' in many countries has re... more During the past few years, the growth of an emergent 'coaching industry' in many countries has resulted in some scholars calling for the development of a 'coaching profession.' Yet, contemporary HRD and OD professionals conceive of coaching as a necessary area of expertise. This paper reports the results of a qualitative study of different conceptualizations and definitions of 'coaching,' OD, and contemporary 'HRD' as reported in the literature. Findings and implications are presented.
Routledge Studies in Human Resource Development, 2007
… human resource development: a research-based …, 2002
... It is encouraging to note that strategic HRD is now emerging as a significant and discrete fi... more ... It is encouraging to note that strategic HRD is now emerging as a significant and discrete field of scholarship complementing that of strategic HRM (Thomson and Mabey 1994; Mabey and Salaman 1995; Harrison 1997; Rothwell and Kasanas 1989a and 1989b; Walton 1999 ...
The concept of managers assuming developmental roles such as coaches and learning facilitators ha... more The concept of managers assuming developmental roles such as coaches and learning facilitators has gained considerable attention in recent years as organizations seek to leverage learning by creating infrastructures that foster employee learning and development. Despite the increased focus on coaching, the literature base remains atheoretical. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to compare the empirical findings from three separate studies to derive a comprehensive understanding of coaching models of management and leadership.
Advances in Developing Human Resources, 2014
The Problem Coaching is becoming a ubiquitous form of human resource development (HRD) that exper... more The Problem Coaching is becoming a ubiquitous form of human resource development (HRD) that experiences regular annual gains in both interest and participation. Yet it lacks theoretical framing and has not been conceptually well developed. There is a need for further framing of coaching as a dyadic, or group-based phenomenon, occurring in a set of diverse, but often commonly utilized contexts. The Solution Contributors to this issue inform this growing HRD area by elaborating upon coaching in terms of conceptualization, theoretical foundations, and measurement tools. They provide perspectives on coaching in its many forms, including executive, managerial, and action learning coaching. These perspectives on coaching most often share a dyadic/one-on-one context, and elaborate on coaching practices in terms of interactional richness, learning, and development. The Stakeholders Researchers and scholarly practitioners in the HRD field, internal and external coaches, and line managers who...
Human Resource Development International
International Journal of Human Resource Development: Practice, Policy & Research
Most HRD practitioners are, or wish to become, actively involved as strategic business partners o... more Most HRD practitioners are, or wish to become, actively involved as strategic business partners of managers, particularly with respect to helping them bring about effective and beneficial organizational change within their own organizations, or within host organizations. This article discusses the complexities of HRD related process issues in the effective management of organizational change, and the value of using HRD-related theory, change management-related theory, and/or academically rigorous internal in-company research to help inform, shape, and evaluate the change agency practice of HRD professionals and the managers they partner. Following a discussion of why many organizational change programmes fail, the author argues that 'evidencebased HRD' geared to the strategic thrust of the business will likely lead to the HRD function maximizing its contribution to organizational effectiveness and sustainable business success. Two UK case examples of evidence-based HRD are presented, followed by a discussion of the worth of 'professional partnership' research and empirical generalization 'replication' research.
Strategic Change, 1997
Organizational change can be a slow and protracted process within organizations, not least within... more Organizational change can be a slow and protracted process within organizations, not least within traditional bureaucracies whether in the public or private sector. This paper focuses on the recent experience of the writers in helping to bring about cultural change expeditiously in one part of the British Civil Service, namely Anglia Collection, an Executive Unit of HM Customs and Excise. Historically the ability of the British Civil
International Journal of Human Resources Development and Management, Mar 20, 2015
... Additionally Bob is active as a management training consultant working mainly with local comp... more ... Additionally Bob is active as a management training consultant working mainly with local companies but also internationally. ... of these researchers focused predominently upon top and senior managers, the study reported here was concerned mainly with middle, junior and first ...
Human Resource Development Quarterly, 2013
ABSTRACT AbstractA long‐standing problem in management research has been the lack of agreement ab... more ABSTRACT AbstractA long‐standing problem in management research has been the lack of agreement about the specific managerial behaviors that are most closely associated with effective management practice and leadership practice. The study reports the results of a qualitative multiple cross‐case and cross‐sector exploration of what managers and nonmanagerial employees within British public‐, private‐, and third‐sector organizations perceive as effective and least effective/ineffective managerial behavior. Based on empirical findings obtained from nine prior emic replication studies, our derived etic comparative analysis has led to a deduced taxonomy of perceived managerial and leadership effectiveness comprised of eight positive (effective) and six negative (least effective/ineffective) generic behavioral criteria. Comparisons against extant U.S.‐derived taxonomies have revealed many similarities but also significant differences. The findings go against the grain of predominant discourse, and challenge long‐held, taken‐for‐granted assumptions about the “contingent” nature of management and leadership. Implications for HRD research and practice are discussed.
Abstract: We conduct an emic replication study of managerial and leadership effectiveness in UAE,... more Abstract: We conduct an emic replication study of managerial and leadership effectiveness in UAE, thereby addressing the paucity in extant literature of indigenous management research in non-Western countries. Second, we compare our findings from the UAE study with those from a similar study previously conducted by author 3 in Egypt, to reveal that there are considerable similarities in the perceived effectiveness and ineffectiveness of managerial behavior across these two countries, but also considerable differences. Finally and most importantly, we examine the findings from the two studies through the combined conceptual lenses of Islamic Work Ethics (IWE) and Islamic Leadership (IL). We find that more than half of positive and negative Behavioral Statements emerging from these studies are grounded in the principles of IWE and IL, implying that these principles exercise significant influence on followers’ Implicit Leadership Theories, and consequently their perceptions of managerial and leader behaviors. Theoretical and managerial implications are also offered.
Human Resource Development International, 2011
The purpose of this study was to compare the perceptions of Mexican and US employees about effect... more The purpose of this study was to compare the perceptions of Mexican and US employees about effective and ineffective managerial behaviour. Design/methodology/approach A qualitative multiple cross-case comparative analysis of findings obtained from two past emic replication studies of observed effective and ineffective managerial behaviour carried out in Mexico and the USA respectively was conducted. Findings Notwithstanding the significant cultural variances between Mexico and the US underlined by various cross-cultural studies, our findings suggest that Mexican and US employees perceive effective and ineffective managerial behaviour in a very similar manner. Research limitations While the results of our study suggest that culture may not play a significant role in the way people perceive managerial and leadership effectiveness, we suggest that more replication studies with larger and more balanced gender samples using different methods need to be performed in both countries. Practical implications The findings of our study may be relevant for HRD professionals in both countries when providing training to expatriates for international assignments. Reinforcing the set of managerial practices that are perceived as effective in these two countries, and emphasizing those practices that may be particular to Mexico and the US respectively, could lead to an improvement in the performance of Mexican executives managing in the US and US executives managing in Mexico.
In support of research-based organisation change and development through professional partnerships
This paper presents arguments in support of evidence-based healthcare management, drawing on orga... more This paper presents arguments in support of evidence-based healthcare management, drawing on organisationally based empirical research, set within an NHS Trust Hospital in the UK. The research focuses on identifying the criteria of managerial effectiveness applying at the middle and front line management levels of the organisation, using critical incident technique and factor analysis methods. It appears that the self-perceptions of managers and the perceptions of their superiors and subordinates are very similar, and only differ on a limited number of criteria. This challenges the ‘perspectivespecific’ models of managerial effectiveness advocated by some researchers. The results are compared against those from an equivalent study carried out within one part of HM Customs & Excise, a major department of the British Civil Service. The findings suggest the existence of generalised criteria of managerial effectiveness, supporting the notion of the ‘universally effective manager’. This ...
This paper provides a review and synthesis of current practice in the field of Organisation Chang... more This paper provides a review and synthesis of current practice in the field of Organisation Change and Development (OCD). Five key 'failings' of managers contributing to the low success rate of OCD programmes are identified. To overcome these 'failings' a case is made for more evidence and research - based OCD practice, particularly OD initiatives informed and shaped by organisationally based research facilitated through 'university-organisation' professional partnerships of the kind advocated by Jacobs (1997). A framework conceptualising OCD Professional Partnerships is presented. This suggests an integrative and cyclical process connecting OCD research and consultancy which follow a similar sequence of stages with outcomes that are mutually beneficial and reinforcing. A UK example of an OCD Professional Partnership set within one part of the British Civil Service is presented which demonstrates how OCD practice can be profoundly influenced and enhanced by a...
Handbook of Research Methods on Human Resource Development
Business Leadership Review, 2007
This article presents the findings of an HRD Professional Partnership study of effective and inef... more This article presents the findings of an HRD Professional Partnership study of effective and ineffective managerial and leadership behaviours exhibited by executive leaders within the UK business of a large international telecommunications company, and describes how the research has challenged various aspects of the organisation’s company-wide competency framework and its executive leader development programme. Additionally, the article reveals and discusses the extent to which the results are generalised to the findings of several managerial and leadership effectiveness studies carried out in other UK private and public-sector organisations, and the contribution of this research to current debates concerning the universality of management and leadership, and the concept of evidence-based management. Despite various calls in the US and UK literatures for evidence-based approaches to Human Resource Development (HRD), limited progress has been made in closing the much talked about HRD research-practice gap. Nevertheless, one effective means for HRD practitioners to become evidence-based is through the HRD Professional Partnership concept as originally defined in the USA by Jacobs and strongly advocated in the UK by Hamlin. In such researcher-practitioner partnerships there is a dual goal to improve the organisation through the application of academically-rigorous applied research, whilst at the same time advancing the field of HRD knowledge. However, only a few such studies have been reported in the literature. Building upon the work of these researchers, this article primarily presents the findings of an HRD Professional Partnership research study of effective, and least effective, executive leader behaviours exhibited by directors, heads of department and other top managers within the UK business of a large global telecommunications company (which for the purpose of anonymity is referred to either as TLFN Group plc or TLFN). It also reports how these findings were used to inform and shape evidence-based HR and HRD initiatives within the company for the measurement, selection, and development of executive leaders. Additionally, the article presents the results of a comparative cross-case analysis of the TLFN findings against equivalent findings from several replica studies of manager and managerial leader effectiveness carried out within both UK private and public-sector organisations. These are then discussed within the context of current debates regarding the universality of management and leadership, and of recent calls for evidence-based management. Business Leadership Review IV:IV www.mbaworld.com/blr October 2007 Page 1 of 16 © 2007 Association of MBAs Developing Effective Leadership Behaviours: The Value of Evidence-Based Management Robert G. Hamlin, Professor Emeritus and Chair of Human Resource Development, University of Wolverhampton Business School, and Jenny Sawyer, Organisation Development Manager at The Anchor Trust Organisational and Theoretical Issues of Concern This section outlines the various organisational and theoretical issues of concern that have informed the choice of focus and design for this study. Organisational Context TLFN Group plc, which was founded in the late 1980s, has grown into a multi-national retail distribution group making profits from a range of related telecommunications services across various geographical markets worldwide. The company is structured into core business units which include the distribution of products and services that are retailed globally through its high street stores, website and interactive television; telecoms services; insurance; and repairs. The continuing growth and increasing diversity of the business led to significant changes in the dynamic at the Board and executive-leader-level of management, as reflected in certain early signs of emergent tensions, conflicts and rigidities within and between departments and teams, with some executive leaders beginning to exhibit parochial attitudes and behaviours and a silo mentality. Consequently, at the latter end of 2004 the Director of Human Resources decided to develop a new role and function specifically focused on talent management. The aims of this new function were to facilitate a one-company organisational and management culture, help grow the human capability required to support the continuing business expansion and diversification, develop consistent and transparent performance management across the UK business, help enhance the employee experience so as to retain and attract the best talent, and to create consistency and best practice in the development of quality leadership and management within the organisation. This called for a better understanding of the evolving management culture of TLFN in its UK business, as reflected by the managerial and leadership behaviour of top and senior managers operating at the executive-leader-level of the company. Consequently, it was decided to…
Online Submission, Feb 1, 2008
During the past few years, the growth of an emergent 'coaching industry' in many countries has re... more During the past few years, the growth of an emergent 'coaching industry' in many countries has resulted in some scholars calling for the development of a 'coaching profession.' Yet, contemporary HRD and OD professionals conceive of coaching as a necessary area of expertise. This paper reports the results of a qualitative study of different conceptualizations and definitions of 'coaching,' OD, and contemporary 'HRD' as reported in the literature. Findings and implications are presented.
Routledge Studies in Human Resource Development, 2007
… human resource development: a research-based …, 2002
... It is encouraging to note that strategic HRD is now emerging as a significant and discrete fi... more ... It is encouraging to note that strategic HRD is now emerging as a significant and discrete field of scholarship complementing that of strategic HRM (Thomson and Mabey 1994; Mabey and Salaman 1995; Harrison 1997; Rothwell and Kasanas 1989a and 1989b; Walton 1999 ...
The concept of managers assuming developmental roles such as coaches and learning facilitators ha... more The concept of managers assuming developmental roles such as coaches and learning facilitators has gained considerable attention in recent years as organizations seek to leverage learning by creating infrastructures that foster employee learning and development. Despite the increased focus on coaching, the literature base remains atheoretical. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to compare the empirical findings from three separate studies to derive a comprehensive understanding of coaching models of management and leadership.
Advances in Developing Human Resources, 2014
The Problem Coaching is becoming a ubiquitous form of human resource development (HRD) that exper... more The Problem Coaching is becoming a ubiquitous form of human resource development (HRD) that experiences regular annual gains in both interest and participation. Yet it lacks theoretical framing and has not been conceptually well developed. There is a need for further framing of coaching as a dyadic, or group-based phenomenon, occurring in a set of diverse, but often commonly utilized contexts. The Solution Contributors to this issue inform this growing HRD area by elaborating upon coaching in terms of conceptualization, theoretical foundations, and measurement tools. They provide perspectives on coaching in its many forms, including executive, managerial, and action learning coaching. These perspectives on coaching most often share a dyadic/one-on-one context, and elaborate on coaching practices in terms of interactional richness, learning, and development. The Stakeholders Researchers and scholarly practitioners in the HRD field, internal and external coaches, and line managers who...
Human Resource Development International
International Journal of Human Resource Development: Practice, Policy & Research
Most HRD practitioners are, or wish to become, actively involved as strategic business partners o... more Most HRD practitioners are, or wish to become, actively involved as strategic business partners of managers, particularly with respect to helping them bring about effective and beneficial organizational change within their own organizations, or within host organizations. This article discusses the complexities of HRD related process issues in the effective management of organizational change, and the value of using HRD-related theory, change management-related theory, and/or academically rigorous internal in-company research to help inform, shape, and evaluate the change agency practice of HRD professionals and the managers they partner. Following a discussion of why many organizational change programmes fail, the author argues that 'evidencebased HRD' geared to the strategic thrust of the business will likely lead to the HRD function maximizing its contribution to organizational effectiveness and sustainable business success. Two UK case examples of evidence-based HRD are presented, followed by a discussion of the worth of 'professional partnership' research and empirical generalization 'replication' research.
Strategic Change, 1997
Organizational change can be a slow and protracted process within organizations, not least within... more Organizational change can be a slow and protracted process within organizations, not least within traditional bureaucracies whether in the public or private sector. This paper focuses on the recent experience of the writers in helping to bring about cultural change expeditiously in one part of the British Civil Service, namely Anglia Collection, an Executive Unit of HM Customs and Excise. Historically the ability of the British Civil
International Journal of Human Resources Development and Management, Mar 20, 2015
... Additionally Bob is active as a management training consultant working mainly with local comp... more ... Additionally Bob is active as a management training consultant working mainly with local companies but also internationally. ... of these researchers focused predominently upon top and senior managers, the study reported here was concerned mainly with middle, junior and first ...
Human Resource Development Quarterly, 2013
ABSTRACT AbstractA long‐standing problem in management research has been the lack of agreement ab... more ABSTRACT AbstractA long‐standing problem in management research has been the lack of agreement about the specific managerial behaviors that are most closely associated with effective management practice and leadership practice. The study reports the results of a qualitative multiple cross‐case and cross‐sector exploration of what managers and nonmanagerial employees within British public‐, private‐, and third‐sector organizations perceive as effective and least effective/ineffective managerial behavior. Based on empirical findings obtained from nine prior emic replication studies, our derived etic comparative analysis has led to a deduced taxonomy of perceived managerial and leadership effectiveness comprised of eight positive (effective) and six negative (least effective/ineffective) generic behavioral criteria. Comparisons against extant U.S.‐derived taxonomies have revealed many similarities but also significant differences. The findings go against the grain of predominant discourse, and challenge long‐held, taken‐for‐granted assumptions about the “contingent” nature of management and leadership. Implications for HRD research and practice are discussed.
International Journal of Management Concepts and Philosophy, Mar 20, 2015
The present study analyses the qualitative research methodologies used for several 'emic' case-st... more The present study analyses the qualitative research methodologies used for several 'emic' case-study explorations of managerial behaviours that we have carried out independently within various UK and US public, corporate/private and voluntary sector organisations. These results have subsequently been used for a collaborative cross-cultural 'etic' study. The aim of each 'emic' study was to identify either the criteria and/or behavioural indicators/categories of 'managerial and leadership effectiveness', or of 'managerial coaching effectiveness'. The aim of our collaborative cross-cultural 'etic' study was to search for evidence of commonalities and relative generalisations between the findings of our respective 'emic' studies and, if possible, synthesise a 'unified perspective' from the 'multiple realities' identified. The main conclusion of the present article is that research designs embracing 'qualitative methodological pluralism' and 'rigorous analytical triangulation' can result in meaningful generalised findings, and these can lead to the production of 'general knowledge' and 'management theory'.