Heather Betz - Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by Heather Betz
Journal of Community Health, May 5, 2015
Project FIT was a two-year multi-component nutrition and physical activity intervention delivered... more Project FIT was a two-year multi-component nutrition and physical activity intervention delivered in ethnically-diverse low-income elementary schools in Grand Rapids, MI. This paper reports effects on children's nutrition outcomes and process evaluation of the school component. A quasi-experimental design was utilized. 3rd, 4th and 5th-grade students (Yr 1 baseline: N = 410; Yr 2 baseline: N = 405; age range: 7.5-12.6 years) were measured in the fall and spring over the two-year intervention. Ordinal logistic, mixed effect models and generalized estimating equations were fitted, and the robust standard errors were utilized. Primary outcomes favoring the intervention students were found regarding consumption of fruits, vegetables and whole grain bread during year 2. Process evaluation revealed that implementation of most intervention components increased during year 2. Project FIT resulted in small but beneficial effects on consumption of fruits, vegetables, and whole grain bread in ethnically diverse low-income elementary school children.
Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 2020
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between ultramarathon running, grit... more The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between ultramarathon running, grit-passion, and grit-perseverance. A total of 153 ultramarathon runners (age = 40.5 9.0 years) answered demographic questions and completed a survey measuring subcomponents of grit via Google Forms. Grit was measured with the 12-item Grit Scale consisting of two subscales: consistency of interest (grit-passion) and perseverance of effort (grit-perseverance). The ultramarathon runners were recruited through emails from race directors, Facebook groups, and email invitations from the primary investigator. Statistical analyses were performed using Pearson product-moment correlations and a one-way ANOVA. Significance was set to p < .05. There was a positive correlation between number of years running and grit-passion (r = .17, p = .039). On average, participants had spent 14.4 9.8 years running and had competed in ultramarathons for 4.3 3.5 years. A positive correlation was found between the number of kilometres run per week and grit-passion (r = .22, p = .007). Participants, on average, ran 57.9 21.4 kilometres per week. For grit-perseverance, there was a statistically significant difference between the short and medium distance groups of ultramarathon runners when compared to the group of runners completing timed ultramarathon races (p = .002). Failure to complete their last ultramarathon was not significantly associated with grit-passion (p = .37) or grit-perseverance (p = .92).
Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Mar 1, 2015
Background:Quantifying lifetime physical activity using self-reported measures is challenging due... more Background:Quantifying lifetime physical activity using self-reported measures is challenging due to reliance on recall, especially in older populations. The purpose of this study was to determine the 1-year reproducibility of the Veterans Physical Activity Questionnaire (VAPAQ) in a cohort of patients with documented abdominal aortic aneurysm disease (AAA).Methods:Subjects included men (n = 52) and women (n = 3) enrolled in AAA STOP, a randomized trial designed to test the ability of supervised exercise training to modify AAA biology and early disease progression.Results:The overall correlation coefficient for lifetime recreational energy expenditure between the 2 examinations was 0.93 (P &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt; .001), with an overall difference of 26 kcal/week, a typical error (standard deviation of the differences) of 171 kcals/week, and a coefficient of variation (CV) of 15.5%.Conclusions:The VAPAQ is a reproducible tool to quantify lifetime energy expenditure in older adults with documented vascular disease.
Health Education Journal, Jul 11, 2014
Objective: To evaluate the short-term outcome of the social marketing approach used in Project FI... more Objective: To evaluate the short-term outcome of the social marketing approach used in Project FIT, we developed a school- and community-based programme for promoting healthful eating and physical activity in kindergarten to 5th-grade children and their parents. Design: A 2-year quasi-experiment for children and two cross-sectional surveys for parents. Setting: We included low-income, urban and ethnically diverse elementary schools and neighbourhoods in Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA. Method: Students in 3rd, 4th and 5th grades were surveyed in four intervention schools (four time points, N with at least one time point measurement = 664) and two control schools ( N = 195). Parents of intervention students were surveyed at baseline ( N = 286) and follow-up ( N = 215). Key dependent variables included self-reported healthful eating and physical activity. Key independent variables included awareness, knowledge, motivation and attitudes towards Project FIT. Analysis: We analysed generalised linear mixed models and generalised estimation equation (GEE) models for the student surveys and mean difference tests and logistic regressions for the parent surveys. Results: The proportion of students who were aware of Project FIT increased over time. GEE models showed that selected key dependent variables were significantly associated with self-reported healthful eating and physical activity. Parents were more aware of Project FIT at follow-up compared to the baseline survey, and their attitudes were significantly associated with increased healthful eating (vegetables, fruits and whole grains). Conclusion: The social marketing approach utilised in Project FIT contributed to increasing awareness and achieving behavioural goals of healthful eating and physical activity.
American Journal of Health Behavior, May 1, 2013
To determine the joint association of junk food consumption (JFC) and screen time (ST) with adipo... more To determine the joint association of junk food consumption (JFC) and screen time (ST) with adiposity in children. Two hundred fourteen (121 girls, 93 boys) third-to-fifth-grade students (54% Hispanic, 35% African American, 8% white) completed a lifestyle behavior survey, which included self-reported JFC and ST, as part of a school-based lifestyle intervention program. Neither JFC nor ST, independently or jointly, was associated with adiposity measures. JFC and ST were significantly correlated (r = .375). The low achievement of physical activity and screen time recommendations and high prevalence of overweight/obesity in this mostly minority, low socioeconomic status population indicates a potential focus for intervention.
Acta Scientific Paediatrics, Sep 10, 2019
Currently, 17% of youth (ages 2-19 years) in the United States (U.S.) are obese [1] and 58% of ch... more Currently, 17% of youth (ages 2-19 years) in the United States (U.S.) are obese [1] and 58% of children ages 6-11 years and 92% of 12-19 years do not meet the recommended amount of physical activity (> 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) per day) [2]. In general, there is an assumption that normal weight youth are physically active and obese youth are physically inactive. Overweight and obese youth have been shown to be less active compared to normal weight youth [3], but it has also been shown that a significant percent of overweight or obese children do meet current physical activity recommendations (60 minutes of MVPA) [4]. Indeed, in a sample of 157 youth, we found that 39% of the overfat (based on dual energy x-ray absorptiometry) participants met the physical activity recommendations, whereas 43% of normal fat youth did not meet the recommendation [5]. In addition, it has been shown that there is a fair amount of variability in the relationship between physical activity and overweight [6], indicating that there is considerable variation in physical activity among individuals with similar levels of adiposity. The primary purpose of this paper was to investigate the prevalence of distinct combinations of MVPA by weight status among U.S. children and adolescents, particularly the idea of the 'fat but active' phenotype. Secondarily, we examined the association of physical activity with overweight and obesity in a nationally representative sample of 6-18 year old children and adolescents. Background: The purpose of this paper was to investigate the prevalence of distinct combinations of physical activity (PA) by weight status, particularly the idea of the 'fat but active' phenotype and the association of PA with overweight/obesity.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, May 1, 2018
Some athletes are willing to try any supplement or drug to enhance performance. Recent reports su... more Some athletes are willing to try any supplement or drug to enhance performance. Recent reports suggest cigarette smoking may improve endurance performance by inducing oxidative stress which would, in turn, stimulate an increase in hemoglobin and thus increase oxygen-carrying capacity. It is important to validate these claims, given the hazardous side effects of cigarette smoking. PURPOSE: Examine the influence of cigarette smoking on blood hemoglobin levels to determine if smoking stimulates training-like conditions for aerobic enhancement. METHODS: Hemoglobin and oximetry levels were measured in 594 smokers and 1,626 non-smokers across a wide age-range (ages 15 to 98). Independent variables were age, sex, obesity, smoking status, and presence of diabetes, COPD, or other respiratory diseases. Dependent variables were hemoglobin and oximetry. Independent-samples t tests and chi-square tests were used to detect group differences between smokers and non-smokers. Multiple linear regressions were used to isolate the effect of smoking on hemoglobin and oximetry. RESULTS: Subjects were 52.5 ± 22.5 years of age, 55.7% were male, 16.5% were obese, average hemoglobin was 13.5 ± 1.9 g/dL, and oximetry was 97.0 ± 2.9%. Independentsamples t tests revealed cigarette smokers' hemoglobin levels to be 4.6% higher (p<0.001) and oxygen saturation to be 0.3 percentage points higher (p=0.042). Cigarette smokers were also 13.5 years older (p<0.001) and more likely to be male (p<0.001). Age (p<0.001) and sex (p<0.001) were strongly correlated with hemoglobin. When controlling for all significant confounders, multiple linear regression did not demonstrate a significant effect of cigarette smoking on hemoglobin (p=0.317) but it found a reduction of 0.4 percentage points on oximetry (p=0.005). CONCLUSIONS: Simple t-tests indicated cigarettes might confer an ergogenic advantage via elevations in hemoglobin and oximetry. This, left alone, could suggest inadequate oxygen saturation of the blood (owing to smoking) may simulate training-like conditions. However, the predominant explanatory variables were age and sex. It is not the smoking, but other subject factors of the person who smokes that influences hemoglobin levels. Controlling for confounders, smoking has no effect on hemoglobin and reduced oxygen saturation.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, May 1, 2018
Research focusing on bodybuilding training and nutrition strategies is limited and no research ha... more Research focusing on bodybuilding training and nutrition strategies is limited and no research has attempted to examine weight regain strategies in these athletes. Due to this limited research, contemporary bodybuilding protocols are often based on anecdote and self-trial. This study will provide information for future research that may lead to evidence based strategies for coaches and athletes. The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to describe demographic characteristics and weight regain methodologies of male, competitive, natural bodybuilders. METHODS: Recruitment was conducted via social media posts. Participants were invited to complete an online survey that included health and demographic information, dietary supplement use, and recreational and performance enhancing drug use. Bodybuilding training and competition information included weight regain methodology, and training phaserelated weight loss and gain information. Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated based on self-reported height and weight. RESULTS: Participants included 24 male natural bodybuilders (Age 28.3±6.6 years, 100% male, 77.8% white). The average BMI of the sample was 25.9±6.6. Participants reported using an average of 5.9±2.9 supplements during the offseason, 6.2±2.9 during contest preparation, and 5.4±2.8 during the recovery period. The majority of the sample (85.2%) reported being amateur competitors, and 48.1% of participants reported previously competing in 1-2 bodybuilding competitions. Participants reported an average contest preparation length of 152.3±95.3 days, and an average competitive season of 40.4±42.5 days. 62.9% of participants reported losing > 25 lbs during contest preparation while weight gain varied from <10lbs to >35lbs. Participants reported using the reverse dieting method of weight regain most often in the past (48.1%). CONCLUSION: This study is the first to describe the weight regain methods of male, natural, bodybuilders and allows for further exploration of this understudied population's nutritional strategies. The current study allows for future research to be conducted which may inform coaches and athletes of the safest and most effective methods for constructing individualized dietary and training protocols.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, May 1, 2014
Pedometers have long been used to measure physical activity, while also motivating individuals to... more Pedometers have long been used to measure physical activity, while also motivating individuals to be more active. Access to pedometers has increased, allowing widespread use in a variety of populations, including those with vascular disease. However, little is known regarding the impact of the conditions surrounding issuing a pedometer, i.e., are directions given, are the goals of wearing a pedometer explained, etc. PURPOSE: To explore the influence of pedometers, with no additional information, direction, or encouragement, on the level of daily physical activity in patients with vascular disease. METHODS: Subjects included males (n=45) and females (n=5) (mean age 70.9+/-7.4 years) with abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) disease from the AAA STOP trial. Subjects in the No Contact (NC) group (n=25) were mailed a packet containing a pedometer, 12 monthly log sheets, and 12 postage-paid return envelops. No letter or instructions were included. Interviews were conducted at the 12-month follow-up visit to ascertain information regarding use of the pedometer, i.e., benefits/barriers to exercise, ease of use, etc. Subjects in the Exercise Treatment (ET) group (n=25) received their pedometers at their first study visit, at which time the pedometers were set up for each individual and goals were discussed. Additionally, they received weekly follow-up and reminders to use their pedometers and increase their daily physical activity. RESULTS: Twelve of the 25 (48%) subjects in the NC group returned >6 monthly logs. Energy expenditure (kcals/week) significantly differed between the NC and ET groups at both the 12-month (1331.8+/-244.1 kcals/week vs. 2357.3+/-369.6 kcals/week, p=0.024, respectively) and 24-month follow-up (1053.6+/-227.3 kcals/week vs. 2371.9+/-434.6 kcals/week, p=0.010, respectively). There were no significant differences at either follow-up between those in the NC group who turned in >6 monthly logs and those who didn't. Only 8% (2/25) in the NC group stated that they changed their exercise routine due to wearing the pedometer, while 16% (4/25) stated that they increased their exercise volume due to wearing the pedometer. CONCLUSION: The mere act of receiving a pedometer, without encouragement, guidance, or goals, did not aid in increasing daily physical activity in adults with vascular disease.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, May 1, 2017
INTRODUCTION: The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force and NIH emphasize the use of weight-related... more INTRODUCTION: The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force and NIH emphasize the use of weight-related screenings as a means to increase motivation of overweight/obese individuals to manage body weight. Yet, little is known about individual responses to receiving such screenings, which could inform future research. PURPOSE: To examine the acute, qualitative responses to a common body weight and composition screening in a sample of women classified as 'overfat' by a validated body fat percentage (BF%) cutoff. METHODS: Of 14 volunteers responding to a study ad assessing personal experience to a weight screening, 10 women (30.21 ± 16.64 years; 39.39% ± 6.60%; 28.25 ± 6.15 kg/m 2) were classified as 'overfat'. Following DEXA testing, participants were provided with their weight and composition results, and then given 1-minute to evaluate. Participants were asked a series of questions guided by qualitative description regarding their experience. Interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed, and analyzed with open and axial coding to identify recurring themes. RESULTS: Five themes, represented here as internalized questions, emerged to summarize the individual experience: (1) Is this a threat to me? (2) Why is this a threat? (3) How does this make me feel? (4) Am I motivated? (5) What am I motivated to do? Theoretically, the results support a novel confluence of self-regulation and coping theories, where a weight-related discrepancy produced by the screening triggered perceptions of threat to self, including the appraisal of what is at stake during a stressful encounter (self-esteem, survival/health, sex/attractiveness, social status, family, physical functioning), which guided the appraisal process. Subsequently, emotional and motivational responses varied, as did coping choices (physical activity, healthy/unhealthy dietary changes, heightened self-regulation, seeking social support). CONCLUSIONS: The findings support the use of screenings to heighten awareness to one's body weight, yet highlight the complexity of individuals' responses and importance of 'appraisal stakes'. This study challenges the belief that screenings always trigger healthy, weight control efforts, while highlighting difficulties and potential bias in recruiting overweight women to volunteer for such screenings.
Pediatric Exercise Science, Aug 1, 2018
Purpose: The objective of this study was to examine the independent and combined association of p... more Purpose: The objective of this study was to examine the independent and combined association of physical activity and body mass index (BMI) with blood pressure in youth. Methods: Youth aged 8–18 years from the 2003–2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) with BMI, blood pressure, and physical activity (accelerometer) were included in the analyses. A total of 2585 subjects (1303 males; 47% of all 8- to 18-year-olds) met these criteria. Results: Obese youth had a systolic blood pressure that was 8 mm Hg higher than normal weight youth. A significant interaction between BMI and physical activity on blood pressure was found (P < .001), and group differences among the BMI/activity groups showed that the 3 obese groups and the overweight/least active group had significantly higher systolic blood pressure than the normal weight/active group across all analyses. The overweight/least active and normal weight/least active groups had significantly higher diastolic blood pressure than the normal weight/active group as well. Conclusions: This study showed a significant independent and combined association of BMI and physical activity with blood pressure in youth. Interventions need to focus on the reduction of fatness/BMI as a way to reduce the cardiovascular risk in youth.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Sep 1, 2022
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Jul 1, 2020
Social Physique Anxiety (SPA) has been associated with physical activity (PA) behaviors and anxie... more Social Physique Anxiety (SPA) has been associated with physical activity (PA) behaviors and anxiety disorder symptoms. However, little is known about the potential influence of SPA on associations between PA and Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD). PURPOSE: This study quantified associations between PA, GAD and SPA among young adults (N=470, 23.2±4.8y; 63.4% female) and explored SPA as a mediator of the association between PA and GAD. METHODS: Seven-day PA Recall determined estimated expenditure (kcal/wk) and classified inactive, moderately active, and highly active PA dose categories. The Psychiatric Diagnostic Screening Questionnaire GAD subscale assessed GAD symptom severity; a score of ≥6 indicated analogue GAD (AGAD) status. The Social Physique Anxiety Scale assessed SPA. Independent t-tests examined baseline differences based on gender and AGAD status. Cohen‘s d quantified the magnitude of difference. Logistic regression quantified odds of AGAD based on PA dose, adjusting for age, gender, and smoking status. Simple mediation analyses examined mediation of the continuous PA-GAD symptom association by SPA. RESULTS: Females reported less PA (p≤0.002, d=0.31) and greater SPA (p≤0.001, d=-0.63) and GAD symptom severity (p≤0.001, d=-0.51). AGAD reported greater SPA (p≤0.001, d=0.92). Compared to inactive, odds of AGAD were 28.3% (OR=0.72, 95%CI: [0.43, 1.20], p≥0.21) and 42.5% (OR=0.58, [0.35, 0.94], p≤0.03) lower among moderately active and highly active, respectively. In adjusted models, compared to inactive, odds were 29.3% (OR= 0.71, [0.42, 1.20], p≥0.21) and 36.9% (OR=0.63, [0.38, 1.06], p≥0.08) lower among moderately active and highly active, respectively. Regression models of PA on GAD symptoms (β=-0.01, p≤0.04), SPA on PA (β=-0.02, p≤0.03), and SPA on GAD symptoms (β=0.14, p≤0.001) were significant. When regressed together, SPA was (β=0.14, p≤0.001), but PA was not (β=-0.003, p≤0.27), statistically significant, supporting mediation. CONCLUSION: PA may lower odds of GAD, but findings were not significant after adjusting for covariates. SPA, a modifiable factor that was higher among females and those with AGAD, mediated the association between PA and GAD. Future research should examine these relationships longitudinally and explore SPA experimentally.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, May 1, 2018
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Jul 1, 2020
Journal of American College Health, May 5, 2020
To date, no study has been undertaken to compare the effects of running (weight-bearing) and cycl... more To date, no study has been undertaken to compare the effects of running (weight-bearing) and cycling (non-weight bearing) exercise on biomarkers of knee joint loading. PURPOSE: To investigate knee articular cartilage deformation and changes in serum oligomteric matrix protein (COMP) and lubricin in response to vigorous recreational exercise. We tested the hypothesis that the mode of biomechanical loading of the knee joint (weight-bearing versus non-weight bearing) would influence the nature of the responses. METHODS: 11 male runners (age: 40±6 years; weight: 76±8 kg; VO2max: 4.3±0.3 L/min mean±SD) and 11 male cyclists (35±12 years; 75±5 kg; 4.4±0.6 L/min) were investigated. Venous blood samples and supra-patellar ultrasound imaging scans were obtained at baseline rest, immediately after, and 30 minutes after, vigorous exercise (time trial: either 10 km run or 25 km cycle). Knee cartilage thicknesses and serum COMP and lubricin (ELISA) were determined for each time point. Statistical analyses were performed using two-factor repeated measures (group x time) ANOVA. RESULTS: At baseline rest, there were no significant differences between groups for cartilage thicknesses measured at the intercondyle notch, medial condyle and lateral condyle. Vigorous exercise did not result in significant change in any of the cartilage thicknesses for either group. There were no significant differences between runners and cyclists for COMP (runners: 804.1±87.5 ng/ml; cyclists: 693.0±84.7 ng/ml) and lubricin (runners: 104.0±19.8 ng/ml; cyclists: 119.1±23.9 ng/ml) at baseline. For both groups, vigorous exercise was generally accompanied by an increase in both serum COMP (cyclists: 32.1%; p < 0.05; runners: 14.2%; p = 0.14) and lubricin (cyclists: 39.4%; p < 0.05; runners 56.9%; p < 0.05). Following 30 minutes of rest, serum COMP and lubricin decreased towards baseline values in both groups (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: In the absence of ultrasonographic evidence of knee cartilage deformation, responses of lubricin following an acute bout of vigorous exercise is not influenced by the modality of knee joint loading, and may reflect a temporary increase in joint lubrication. However, changes in cartilage metabolism following exercise, as measured by serum COMP, may be dependent on the exercise modality.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Sep 1, 2022
To date, no study has been undertaken to compare the effects of running (weight-bearing) and cycl... more To date, no study has been undertaken to compare the effects of running (weight-bearing) and cycling (non-weight bearing) exercise on biomarkers of knee joint loading. PURPOSE: To investigate knee articular cartilage deformation and changes in serum oligomteric matrix protein (COMP) and lubricin in response to vigorous recreational exercise. We tested the hypothesis that the mode of biomechanical loading of the knee joint (weight-bearing versus non-weight bearing) would influence the nature of the responses. METHODS: 11 male runners (age: 40±6 years; weight: 76±8 kg; VO2max: 4.3±0.3 L/min mean±SD) and 11 male cyclists (35±12 years; 75±5 kg; 4.4±0.6 L/min) were investigated. Venous blood samples and supra-patellar ultrasound imaging scans were obtained at baseline rest, immediately after, and 30 minutes after, vigorous exercise (time trial: either 10 km run or 25 km cycle). Knee cartilage thicknesses and serum COMP and lubricin (ELISA) were determined for each time point. Statistical analyses were performed using two-factor repeated measures (group x time) ANOVA. RESULTS: At baseline rest, there were no significant differences between groups for cartilage thicknesses measured at the intercondyle notch, medial condyle and lateral condyle. Vigorous exercise did not result in significant change in any of the cartilage thicknesses for either group. There were no significant differences between runners and cyclists for COMP (runners: 804.1±87.5 ng/ml; cyclists: 693.0±84.7 ng/ml) and lubricin (runners: 104.0±19.8 ng/ml; cyclists: 119.1±23.9 ng/ml) at baseline. For both groups, vigorous exercise was generally accompanied by an increase in both serum COMP (cyclists: 32.1%; p < 0.05; runners: 14.2%; p = 0.14) and lubricin (cyclists: 39.4%; p < 0.05; runners 56.9%; p < 0.05). Following 30 minutes of rest, serum COMP and lubricin decreased towards baseline values in both groups (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: In the absence of ultrasonographic evidence of knee cartilage deformation, responses of lubricin following an acute bout of vigorous exercise is not influenced by the modality of knee joint loading, and may reflect a temporary increase in joint lubrication. However, changes in cartilage metabolism following exercise, as measured by serum COMP, may be dependent on the exercise modality.
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise
Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 2020
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between ultramarathon running, grit... more The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between ultramarathon running, grit-passion, and grit-perseverance. A total of 153 ultramarathon runners (age = 40.5 9.0 years) answered demographic questions and completed a survey measuring subcomponents of grit via Google Forms. Grit was measured with the 12-item Grit Scale consisting of two subscales: consistency of interest (grit-passion) and perseverance of effort (grit-perseverance). The ultramarathon runners were recruited through emails from race directors, Facebook groups, and email invitations from the primary investigator. Statistical analyses were performed using Pearson product-moment correlations and a one-way ANOVA. Significance was set to p < .05. There was a positive correlation between number of years running and grit-passion (r = .17, p = .039). On average, participants had spent 14.4 9.8 years running and had competed in ultramarathons for 4.3 3.5 years. A positive correlation was found between the number of kilometres run per week and grit-passion (r = .22, p = .007). Participants, on average, ran 57.9 21.4 kilometres per week. For grit-perseverance, there was a statistically significant difference between the short and medium distance groups of ultramarathon runners when compared to the group of runners completing timed ultramarathon races (p = .002). Failure to complete their last ultramarathon was not significantly associated with grit-passion (p = .37) or grit-perseverance (p = .92).
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 2020
Journal of Community Health, May 5, 2015
Project FIT was a two-year multi-component nutrition and physical activity intervention delivered... more Project FIT was a two-year multi-component nutrition and physical activity intervention delivered in ethnically-diverse low-income elementary schools in Grand Rapids, MI. This paper reports effects on children&amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;#39;s nutrition outcomes and process evaluation of the school component. A quasi-experimental design was utilized. 3rd, 4th and 5th-grade students (Yr 1 baseline: N = 410; Yr 2 baseline: N = 405; age range: 7.5-12.6 years) were measured in the fall and spring over the two-year intervention. Ordinal logistic, mixed effect models and generalized estimating equations were fitted, and the robust standard errors were utilized. Primary outcomes favoring the intervention students were found regarding consumption of fruits, vegetables and whole grain bread during year 2. Process evaluation revealed that implementation of most intervention components increased during year 2. Project FIT resulted in small but beneficial effects on consumption of fruits, vegetables, and whole grain bread in ethnically diverse low-income elementary school children.
Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 2020
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between ultramarathon running, grit... more The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between ultramarathon running, grit-passion, and grit-perseverance. A total of 153 ultramarathon runners (age = 40.5 9.0 years) answered demographic questions and completed a survey measuring subcomponents of grit via Google Forms. Grit was measured with the 12-item Grit Scale consisting of two subscales: consistency of interest (grit-passion) and perseverance of effort (grit-perseverance). The ultramarathon runners were recruited through emails from race directors, Facebook groups, and email invitations from the primary investigator. Statistical analyses were performed using Pearson product-moment correlations and a one-way ANOVA. Significance was set to p < .05. There was a positive correlation between number of years running and grit-passion (r = .17, p = .039). On average, participants had spent 14.4 9.8 years running and had competed in ultramarathons for 4.3 3.5 years. A positive correlation was found between the number of kilometres run per week and grit-passion (r = .22, p = .007). Participants, on average, ran 57.9 21.4 kilometres per week. For grit-perseverance, there was a statistically significant difference between the short and medium distance groups of ultramarathon runners when compared to the group of runners completing timed ultramarathon races (p = .002). Failure to complete their last ultramarathon was not significantly associated with grit-passion (p = .37) or grit-perseverance (p = .92).
Journal of Physical Activity and Health, Mar 1, 2015
Background:Quantifying lifetime physical activity using self-reported measures is challenging due... more Background:Quantifying lifetime physical activity using self-reported measures is challenging due to reliance on recall, especially in older populations. The purpose of this study was to determine the 1-year reproducibility of the Veterans Physical Activity Questionnaire (VAPAQ) in a cohort of patients with documented abdominal aortic aneurysm disease (AAA).Methods:Subjects included men (n = 52) and women (n = 3) enrolled in AAA STOP, a randomized trial designed to test the ability of supervised exercise training to modify AAA biology and early disease progression.Results:The overall correlation coefficient for lifetime recreational energy expenditure between the 2 examinations was 0.93 (P &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt; .001), with an overall difference of 26 kcal/week, a typical error (standard deviation of the differences) of 171 kcals/week, and a coefficient of variation (CV) of 15.5%.Conclusions:The VAPAQ is a reproducible tool to quantify lifetime energy expenditure in older adults with documented vascular disease.
Health Education Journal, Jul 11, 2014
Objective: To evaluate the short-term outcome of the social marketing approach used in Project FI... more Objective: To evaluate the short-term outcome of the social marketing approach used in Project FIT, we developed a school- and community-based programme for promoting healthful eating and physical activity in kindergarten to 5th-grade children and their parents. Design: A 2-year quasi-experiment for children and two cross-sectional surveys for parents. Setting: We included low-income, urban and ethnically diverse elementary schools and neighbourhoods in Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA. Method: Students in 3rd, 4th and 5th grades were surveyed in four intervention schools (four time points, N with at least one time point measurement = 664) and two control schools ( N = 195). Parents of intervention students were surveyed at baseline ( N = 286) and follow-up ( N = 215). Key dependent variables included self-reported healthful eating and physical activity. Key independent variables included awareness, knowledge, motivation and attitudes towards Project FIT. Analysis: We analysed generalised linear mixed models and generalised estimation equation (GEE) models for the student surveys and mean difference tests and logistic regressions for the parent surveys. Results: The proportion of students who were aware of Project FIT increased over time. GEE models showed that selected key dependent variables were significantly associated with self-reported healthful eating and physical activity. Parents were more aware of Project FIT at follow-up compared to the baseline survey, and their attitudes were significantly associated with increased healthful eating (vegetables, fruits and whole grains). Conclusion: The social marketing approach utilised in Project FIT contributed to increasing awareness and achieving behavioural goals of healthful eating and physical activity.
American Journal of Health Behavior, May 1, 2013
To determine the joint association of junk food consumption (JFC) and screen time (ST) with adipo... more To determine the joint association of junk food consumption (JFC) and screen time (ST) with adiposity in children. Two hundred fourteen (121 girls, 93 boys) third-to-fifth-grade students (54% Hispanic, 35% African American, 8% white) completed a lifestyle behavior survey, which included self-reported JFC and ST, as part of a school-based lifestyle intervention program. Neither JFC nor ST, independently or jointly, was associated with adiposity measures. JFC and ST were significantly correlated (r = .375). The low achievement of physical activity and screen time recommendations and high prevalence of overweight/obesity in this mostly minority, low socioeconomic status population indicates a potential focus for intervention.
Acta Scientific Paediatrics, Sep 10, 2019
Currently, 17% of youth (ages 2-19 years) in the United States (U.S.) are obese [1] and 58% of ch... more Currently, 17% of youth (ages 2-19 years) in the United States (U.S.) are obese [1] and 58% of children ages 6-11 years and 92% of 12-19 years do not meet the recommended amount of physical activity (> 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) per day) [2]. In general, there is an assumption that normal weight youth are physically active and obese youth are physically inactive. Overweight and obese youth have been shown to be less active compared to normal weight youth [3], but it has also been shown that a significant percent of overweight or obese children do meet current physical activity recommendations (60 minutes of MVPA) [4]. Indeed, in a sample of 157 youth, we found that 39% of the overfat (based on dual energy x-ray absorptiometry) participants met the physical activity recommendations, whereas 43% of normal fat youth did not meet the recommendation [5]. In addition, it has been shown that there is a fair amount of variability in the relationship between physical activity and overweight [6], indicating that there is considerable variation in physical activity among individuals with similar levels of adiposity. The primary purpose of this paper was to investigate the prevalence of distinct combinations of MVPA by weight status among U.S. children and adolescents, particularly the idea of the 'fat but active' phenotype. Secondarily, we examined the association of physical activity with overweight and obesity in a nationally representative sample of 6-18 year old children and adolescents. Background: The purpose of this paper was to investigate the prevalence of distinct combinations of physical activity (PA) by weight status, particularly the idea of the 'fat but active' phenotype and the association of PA with overweight/obesity.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, May 1, 2018
Some athletes are willing to try any supplement or drug to enhance performance. Recent reports su... more Some athletes are willing to try any supplement or drug to enhance performance. Recent reports suggest cigarette smoking may improve endurance performance by inducing oxidative stress which would, in turn, stimulate an increase in hemoglobin and thus increase oxygen-carrying capacity. It is important to validate these claims, given the hazardous side effects of cigarette smoking. PURPOSE: Examine the influence of cigarette smoking on blood hemoglobin levels to determine if smoking stimulates training-like conditions for aerobic enhancement. METHODS: Hemoglobin and oximetry levels were measured in 594 smokers and 1,626 non-smokers across a wide age-range (ages 15 to 98). Independent variables were age, sex, obesity, smoking status, and presence of diabetes, COPD, or other respiratory diseases. Dependent variables were hemoglobin and oximetry. Independent-samples t tests and chi-square tests were used to detect group differences between smokers and non-smokers. Multiple linear regressions were used to isolate the effect of smoking on hemoglobin and oximetry. RESULTS: Subjects were 52.5 ± 22.5 years of age, 55.7% were male, 16.5% were obese, average hemoglobin was 13.5 ± 1.9 g/dL, and oximetry was 97.0 ± 2.9%. Independentsamples t tests revealed cigarette smokers' hemoglobin levels to be 4.6% higher (p<0.001) and oxygen saturation to be 0.3 percentage points higher (p=0.042). Cigarette smokers were also 13.5 years older (p<0.001) and more likely to be male (p<0.001). Age (p<0.001) and sex (p<0.001) were strongly correlated with hemoglobin. When controlling for all significant confounders, multiple linear regression did not demonstrate a significant effect of cigarette smoking on hemoglobin (p=0.317) but it found a reduction of 0.4 percentage points on oximetry (p=0.005). CONCLUSIONS: Simple t-tests indicated cigarettes might confer an ergogenic advantage via elevations in hemoglobin and oximetry. This, left alone, could suggest inadequate oxygen saturation of the blood (owing to smoking) may simulate training-like conditions. However, the predominant explanatory variables were age and sex. It is not the smoking, but other subject factors of the person who smokes that influences hemoglobin levels. Controlling for confounders, smoking has no effect on hemoglobin and reduced oxygen saturation.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, May 1, 2018
Research focusing on bodybuilding training and nutrition strategies is limited and no research ha... more Research focusing on bodybuilding training and nutrition strategies is limited and no research has attempted to examine weight regain strategies in these athletes. Due to this limited research, contemporary bodybuilding protocols are often based on anecdote and self-trial. This study will provide information for future research that may lead to evidence based strategies for coaches and athletes. The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to describe demographic characteristics and weight regain methodologies of male, competitive, natural bodybuilders. METHODS: Recruitment was conducted via social media posts. Participants were invited to complete an online survey that included health and demographic information, dietary supplement use, and recreational and performance enhancing drug use. Bodybuilding training and competition information included weight regain methodology, and training phaserelated weight loss and gain information. Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated based on self-reported height and weight. RESULTS: Participants included 24 male natural bodybuilders (Age 28.3±6.6 years, 100% male, 77.8% white). The average BMI of the sample was 25.9±6.6. Participants reported using an average of 5.9±2.9 supplements during the offseason, 6.2±2.9 during contest preparation, and 5.4±2.8 during the recovery period. The majority of the sample (85.2%) reported being amateur competitors, and 48.1% of participants reported previously competing in 1-2 bodybuilding competitions. Participants reported an average contest preparation length of 152.3±95.3 days, and an average competitive season of 40.4±42.5 days. 62.9% of participants reported losing > 25 lbs during contest preparation while weight gain varied from <10lbs to >35lbs. Participants reported using the reverse dieting method of weight regain most often in the past (48.1%). CONCLUSION: This study is the first to describe the weight regain methods of male, natural, bodybuilders and allows for further exploration of this understudied population's nutritional strategies. The current study allows for future research to be conducted which may inform coaches and athletes of the safest and most effective methods for constructing individualized dietary and training protocols.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, May 1, 2014
Pedometers have long been used to measure physical activity, while also motivating individuals to... more Pedometers have long been used to measure physical activity, while also motivating individuals to be more active. Access to pedometers has increased, allowing widespread use in a variety of populations, including those with vascular disease. However, little is known regarding the impact of the conditions surrounding issuing a pedometer, i.e., are directions given, are the goals of wearing a pedometer explained, etc. PURPOSE: To explore the influence of pedometers, with no additional information, direction, or encouragement, on the level of daily physical activity in patients with vascular disease. METHODS: Subjects included males (n=45) and females (n=5) (mean age 70.9+/-7.4 years) with abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) disease from the AAA STOP trial. Subjects in the No Contact (NC) group (n=25) were mailed a packet containing a pedometer, 12 monthly log sheets, and 12 postage-paid return envelops. No letter or instructions were included. Interviews were conducted at the 12-month follow-up visit to ascertain information regarding use of the pedometer, i.e., benefits/barriers to exercise, ease of use, etc. Subjects in the Exercise Treatment (ET) group (n=25) received their pedometers at their first study visit, at which time the pedometers were set up for each individual and goals were discussed. Additionally, they received weekly follow-up and reminders to use their pedometers and increase their daily physical activity. RESULTS: Twelve of the 25 (48%) subjects in the NC group returned >6 monthly logs. Energy expenditure (kcals/week) significantly differed between the NC and ET groups at both the 12-month (1331.8+/-244.1 kcals/week vs. 2357.3+/-369.6 kcals/week, p=0.024, respectively) and 24-month follow-up (1053.6+/-227.3 kcals/week vs. 2371.9+/-434.6 kcals/week, p=0.010, respectively). There were no significant differences at either follow-up between those in the NC group who turned in >6 monthly logs and those who didn't. Only 8% (2/25) in the NC group stated that they changed their exercise routine due to wearing the pedometer, while 16% (4/25) stated that they increased their exercise volume due to wearing the pedometer. CONCLUSION: The mere act of receiving a pedometer, without encouragement, guidance, or goals, did not aid in increasing daily physical activity in adults with vascular disease.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, May 1, 2017
INTRODUCTION: The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force and NIH emphasize the use of weight-related... more INTRODUCTION: The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force and NIH emphasize the use of weight-related screenings as a means to increase motivation of overweight/obese individuals to manage body weight. Yet, little is known about individual responses to receiving such screenings, which could inform future research. PURPOSE: To examine the acute, qualitative responses to a common body weight and composition screening in a sample of women classified as 'overfat' by a validated body fat percentage (BF%) cutoff. METHODS: Of 14 volunteers responding to a study ad assessing personal experience to a weight screening, 10 women (30.21 ± 16.64 years; 39.39% ± 6.60%; 28.25 ± 6.15 kg/m 2) were classified as 'overfat'. Following DEXA testing, participants were provided with their weight and composition results, and then given 1-minute to evaluate. Participants were asked a series of questions guided by qualitative description regarding their experience. Interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed, and analyzed with open and axial coding to identify recurring themes. RESULTS: Five themes, represented here as internalized questions, emerged to summarize the individual experience: (1) Is this a threat to me? (2) Why is this a threat? (3) How does this make me feel? (4) Am I motivated? (5) What am I motivated to do? Theoretically, the results support a novel confluence of self-regulation and coping theories, where a weight-related discrepancy produced by the screening triggered perceptions of threat to self, including the appraisal of what is at stake during a stressful encounter (self-esteem, survival/health, sex/attractiveness, social status, family, physical functioning), which guided the appraisal process. Subsequently, emotional and motivational responses varied, as did coping choices (physical activity, healthy/unhealthy dietary changes, heightened self-regulation, seeking social support). CONCLUSIONS: The findings support the use of screenings to heighten awareness to one's body weight, yet highlight the complexity of individuals' responses and importance of 'appraisal stakes'. This study challenges the belief that screenings always trigger healthy, weight control efforts, while highlighting difficulties and potential bias in recruiting overweight women to volunteer for such screenings.
Pediatric Exercise Science, Aug 1, 2018
Purpose: The objective of this study was to examine the independent and combined association of p... more Purpose: The objective of this study was to examine the independent and combined association of physical activity and body mass index (BMI) with blood pressure in youth. Methods: Youth aged 8–18 years from the 2003–2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) with BMI, blood pressure, and physical activity (accelerometer) were included in the analyses. A total of 2585 subjects (1303 males; 47% of all 8- to 18-year-olds) met these criteria. Results: Obese youth had a systolic blood pressure that was 8 mm Hg higher than normal weight youth. A significant interaction between BMI and physical activity on blood pressure was found (P < .001), and group differences among the BMI/activity groups showed that the 3 obese groups and the overweight/least active group had significantly higher systolic blood pressure than the normal weight/active group across all analyses. The overweight/least active and normal weight/least active groups had significantly higher diastolic blood pressure than the normal weight/active group as well. Conclusions: This study showed a significant independent and combined association of BMI and physical activity with blood pressure in youth. Interventions need to focus on the reduction of fatness/BMI as a way to reduce the cardiovascular risk in youth.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Sep 1, 2022
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Jul 1, 2020
Social Physique Anxiety (SPA) has been associated with physical activity (PA) behaviors and anxie... more Social Physique Anxiety (SPA) has been associated with physical activity (PA) behaviors and anxiety disorder symptoms. However, little is known about the potential influence of SPA on associations between PA and Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD). PURPOSE: This study quantified associations between PA, GAD and SPA among young adults (N=470, 23.2±4.8y; 63.4% female) and explored SPA as a mediator of the association between PA and GAD. METHODS: Seven-day PA Recall determined estimated expenditure (kcal/wk) and classified inactive, moderately active, and highly active PA dose categories. The Psychiatric Diagnostic Screening Questionnaire GAD subscale assessed GAD symptom severity; a score of ≥6 indicated analogue GAD (AGAD) status. The Social Physique Anxiety Scale assessed SPA. Independent t-tests examined baseline differences based on gender and AGAD status. Cohen‘s d quantified the magnitude of difference. Logistic regression quantified odds of AGAD based on PA dose, adjusting for age, gender, and smoking status. Simple mediation analyses examined mediation of the continuous PA-GAD symptom association by SPA. RESULTS: Females reported less PA (p≤0.002, d=0.31) and greater SPA (p≤0.001, d=-0.63) and GAD symptom severity (p≤0.001, d=-0.51). AGAD reported greater SPA (p≤0.001, d=0.92). Compared to inactive, odds of AGAD were 28.3% (OR=0.72, 95%CI: [0.43, 1.20], p≥0.21) and 42.5% (OR=0.58, [0.35, 0.94], p≤0.03) lower among moderately active and highly active, respectively. In adjusted models, compared to inactive, odds were 29.3% (OR= 0.71, [0.42, 1.20], p≥0.21) and 36.9% (OR=0.63, [0.38, 1.06], p≥0.08) lower among moderately active and highly active, respectively. Regression models of PA on GAD symptoms (β=-0.01, p≤0.04), SPA on PA (β=-0.02, p≤0.03), and SPA on GAD symptoms (β=0.14, p≤0.001) were significant. When regressed together, SPA was (β=0.14, p≤0.001), but PA was not (β=-0.003, p≤0.27), statistically significant, supporting mediation. CONCLUSION: PA may lower odds of GAD, but findings were not significant after adjusting for covariates. SPA, a modifiable factor that was higher among females and those with AGAD, mediated the association between PA and GAD. Future research should examine these relationships longitudinally and explore SPA experimentally.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, May 1, 2018
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Jul 1, 2020
Journal of American College Health, May 5, 2020
To date, no study has been undertaken to compare the effects of running (weight-bearing) and cycl... more To date, no study has been undertaken to compare the effects of running (weight-bearing) and cycling (non-weight bearing) exercise on biomarkers of knee joint loading. PURPOSE: To investigate knee articular cartilage deformation and changes in serum oligomteric matrix protein (COMP) and lubricin in response to vigorous recreational exercise. We tested the hypothesis that the mode of biomechanical loading of the knee joint (weight-bearing versus non-weight bearing) would influence the nature of the responses. METHODS: 11 male runners (age: 40±6 years; weight: 76±8 kg; VO2max: 4.3±0.3 L/min mean±SD) and 11 male cyclists (35±12 years; 75±5 kg; 4.4±0.6 L/min) were investigated. Venous blood samples and supra-patellar ultrasound imaging scans were obtained at baseline rest, immediately after, and 30 minutes after, vigorous exercise (time trial: either 10 km run or 25 km cycle). Knee cartilage thicknesses and serum COMP and lubricin (ELISA) were determined for each time point. Statistical analyses were performed using two-factor repeated measures (group x time) ANOVA. RESULTS: At baseline rest, there were no significant differences between groups for cartilage thicknesses measured at the intercondyle notch, medial condyle and lateral condyle. Vigorous exercise did not result in significant change in any of the cartilage thicknesses for either group. There were no significant differences between runners and cyclists for COMP (runners: 804.1±87.5 ng/ml; cyclists: 693.0±84.7 ng/ml) and lubricin (runners: 104.0±19.8 ng/ml; cyclists: 119.1±23.9 ng/ml) at baseline. For both groups, vigorous exercise was generally accompanied by an increase in both serum COMP (cyclists: 32.1%; p < 0.05; runners: 14.2%; p = 0.14) and lubricin (cyclists: 39.4%; p < 0.05; runners 56.9%; p < 0.05). Following 30 minutes of rest, serum COMP and lubricin decreased towards baseline values in both groups (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: In the absence of ultrasonographic evidence of knee cartilage deformation, responses of lubricin following an acute bout of vigorous exercise is not influenced by the modality of knee joint loading, and may reflect a temporary increase in joint lubrication. However, changes in cartilage metabolism following exercise, as measured by serum COMP, may be dependent on the exercise modality.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Sep 1, 2022
To date, no study has been undertaken to compare the effects of running (weight-bearing) and cycl... more To date, no study has been undertaken to compare the effects of running (weight-bearing) and cycling (non-weight bearing) exercise on biomarkers of knee joint loading. PURPOSE: To investigate knee articular cartilage deformation and changes in serum oligomteric matrix protein (COMP) and lubricin in response to vigorous recreational exercise. We tested the hypothesis that the mode of biomechanical loading of the knee joint (weight-bearing versus non-weight bearing) would influence the nature of the responses. METHODS: 11 male runners (age: 40±6 years; weight: 76±8 kg; VO2max: 4.3±0.3 L/min mean±SD) and 11 male cyclists (35±12 years; 75±5 kg; 4.4±0.6 L/min) were investigated. Venous blood samples and supra-patellar ultrasound imaging scans were obtained at baseline rest, immediately after, and 30 minutes after, vigorous exercise (time trial: either 10 km run or 25 km cycle). Knee cartilage thicknesses and serum COMP and lubricin (ELISA) were determined for each time point. Statistical analyses were performed using two-factor repeated measures (group x time) ANOVA. RESULTS: At baseline rest, there were no significant differences between groups for cartilage thicknesses measured at the intercondyle notch, medial condyle and lateral condyle. Vigorous exercise did not result in significant change in any of the cartilage thicknesses for either group. There were no significant differences between runners and cyclists for COMP (runners: 804.1±87.5 ng/ml; cyclists: 693.0±84.7 ng/ml) and lubricin (runners: 104.0±19.8 ng/ml; cyclists: 119.1±23.9 ng/ml) at baseline. For both groups, vigorous exercise was generally accompanied by an increase in both serum COMP (cyclists: 32.1%; p < 0.05; runners: 14.2%; p = 0.14) and lubricin (cyclists: 39.4%; p < 0.05; runners 56.9%; p < 0.05). Following 30 minutes of rest, serum COMP and lubricin decreased towards baseline values in both groups (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: In the absence of ultrasonographic evidence of knee cartilage deformation, responses of lubricin following an acute bout of vigorous exercise is not influenced by the modality of knee joint loading, and may reflect a temporary increase in joint lubrication. However, changes in cartilage metabolism following exercise, as measured by serum COMP, may be dependent on the exercise modality.
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise
Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 2020
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between ultramarathon running, grit... more The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between ultramarathon running, grit-passion, and grit-perseverance. A total of 153 ultramarathon runners (age = 40.5 9.0 years) answered demographic questions and completed a survey measuring subcomponents of grit via Google Forms. Grit was measured with the 12-item Grit Scale consisting of two subscales: consistency of interest (grit-passion) and perseverance of effort (grit-perseverance). The ultramarathon runners were recruited through emails from race directors, Facebook groups, and email invitations from the primary investigator. Statistical analyses were performed using Pearson product-moment correlations and a one-way ANOVA. Significance was set to p < .05. There was a positive correlation between number of years running and grit-passion (r = .17, p = .039). On average, participants had spent 14.4 9.8 years running and had competed in ultramarathons for 4.3 3.5 years. A positive correlation was found between the number of kilometres run per week and grit-passion (r = .22, p = .007). Participants, on average, ran 57.9 21.4 kilometres per week. For grit-perseverance, there was a statistically significant difference between the short and medium distance groups of ultramarathon runners when compared to the group of runners completing timed ultramarathon races (p = .002). Failure to complete their last ultramarathon was not significantly associated with grit-passion (p = .37) or grit-perseverance (p = .92).
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 2020