Journal of Universal History Studies JUHIS (original) (raw)

Papers by Journal of Universal History Studies JUHIS

Journal of Universal History Studies (JUHIS), 2024

Although there are many research works on Temujin's birth date, not much work has been done on th... more Although there are many research works on Temujin's birth date, not much work has been done on the year
he assumed the title of Chinggis Khagan/Khan. Researchers prefer to use information that has not been
examined in detail on this subject, and they referto various dates regarding this phenomenon in their studies.
In this study, which we have conducted to clarify the subject, the question of when Temujin assumed the
title of Chinggis Khagan is discussed in light of the information we have obtained from various historical
chronicles, and an answer is sought to this question. As a result of the investigations, it is understood that
Temujin was elected khan three times. It is known that in one of these elections, he was given the title of
Chinggis Khagan. The first of these elections took place after Jamukha and Temujin’s ways had parted.
However, it is not clear exactly when this election was made. Some researchers believe that this election
was held in 1189, as stated in a rather late source. The second was the khan election held in 1203 after
Temujin defeated the Kereyid ruler Ong Khan. The third is the assembly held in 1206 when he came to
declare that all the peoples of Mongolia were under the rule of Chinggis Khagan after defeating the
Naimans. As a result of detailed research on the main sources we have discussed, it has been concluded that
Temujin assumed the title of Chinggis Khagan at the second congress held in 1203.

Journal of Universal History Studies (JUHIS), 2024

One of the most magnificent structures of the city of Stratonikeia is a monumental gateway, curre... more One of the most magnificent structures of the city of Stratonikeia is a monumental gateway, currently
referred to as the “Stratonikeia North City Gate”, comprising two entrances to the north of the city and the
nymphaeum in between. Very large festivals were organized in the Hekate and Panamaros Sanctuaries of
Stratonikeia. These festivals, which start in the sanctuaries, are organized in relation to Stratonikeia and the
rituals continue in the city accompanied by processions passing through the North City Gate of Stratonikeia.
Therefore, components of the ceremonies were held in the city, along the sacred road, and in the sacred
areas. It is known that festivals such as “Triakades” and “Genethlia” associated with the Hekate cult were
developed, along with two significant festivals named “Kleidos agoge” and “Hekatesia-Romaia”.
Particularly in the “Hekatesia-Romaia” festival, Stratonikeia, under the title of “Roma Thea Euergetes”
(Beneficent Goddess), collaborated with other cities in hosting a joint festival, accepting the “Asylia” from
57 participating cities in honour of Hekate Soteira Epiphaneia (Manifest Saviour). Three festivals were
celebrated in connection with the cult of Zeus Panamaros. Among them, Komyria and Heraia took place in
the Panamaros Sacred Area, while Panamareia was celebrated in the city of Stratonikeia. Although the
complete list of cities participating in the Panamareia festival is not yet known, it is understood that
Stratonikeia hosted the Panamareia festival on a global scale for the second time, attracting the participation
of many cities. The west side of the Stratonikeia North City Gate is identified as the entrance to Hekate,
while the east side is associated with Zeus Panamaros, indicating the utilization of the city's two sacred areas
during festivals. The presence of two entrances in the north city gate of Stratonikeia is believed to be related
to the existence of two associated sacred areas. In this context, the study analyses the relationship between
the city and the sanctuaries, the impact, the meaning and the symbolic function of the North City Gate of
Stratonikeia for the inhabitants of the city and the participants from other cities during the festivals

Journal of Universal History Studies (JUHIS), 2024

This study aims to reveal the importance of the results for the Sassanids by emphasizing the back... more This study aims to reveal the importance of the results for the Sassanids by emphasizing the background of
the Hormozdgān battle that took place between the Parthians and the Sassanids in 224 AD. The Sassanid
Dynasty, which emerged in the Fars Province of Iran in the 3rd century, attained a religious and political
prominence in the city of Istakhr, a part of the Parthian State, during the time of Sasan and Babak. The
Sassanids, which entered the process of becoming a state, especially under the leadership of Ardashir, from
the 3rd century AD, managed to make its presence clearly felt in the face of the Parthian State and its vassal
kingdoms in a short time. In this context, most sources have recorded that after Ardashir eliminated the
kingdoms that were subject to the Parthian State, he officially established the Sassanid State in Iran as a
result of his historical victory against the Parthian Shah Ardavān in the Battle of Hormozdgān. Certainly, it
is evident that the Parthians experienced a significant decline in power as a consequence of this war.
However, it is not accurate to assert that this power loss led to their complete extinction. Following the
conflict, the actions of influential groups with Parthian roots posed challenges for the Ardashir government.
The present study contends that the Battle of Hormozdgān, fought between the Sassanids and the Parthians,
was not a localized conflict; rather, it possessed a regional character, and the outcomes of this war even had
repercussions on the global stage.

Journal of Universal History Studies (JUHIS), 2024

After the Ottoman State dominated the Hejaz region and Central Arabia, it implemented a privilege... more After the Ottoman State dominated the Hejaz region and Central Arabia, it implemented a privileged
administration in the region. Ottomans cooperated with leaders who were accepted in the region, had
religious identities or traditionally had influence over the people of the region, and were also compatible
with the belief and political management approach of the Ottoman State, in ensuring administration and
public order. In this context, the Ottoman State improved its relations with the Rashidi family after
eliminating the Wahhabi threat in the region. Ottomans allowed this family to govern the region in a way
on behalf of the Ottoman State. This relationship and alliance were mutually beneficial to both Powers. In
deserts where transportation, living conditions and public order were difficult, the Ottoman State was able
to extend its authority to the most remote parts of this difficult geography, thanks to its local ally. The Rashidi
family continued its existence as a local power in the region with the financial resources and firearms
provided by the Ottoman State, and the legitimacy of being under the command of the caliph, and became
stronger than its rival tribes in the region. The cooperation and alliance of the Ottoman State, which started
with the Rashidi family, continued until the Ottoman State left the region after the First World War. In this
study, the cooperation of the Ottoman State with the Rashids, the competition between Ibn Rashid, Sharif
Hussein and Ibn Saud, and the situation in the region before and after the First World War were examined.
The policies and activities of the Ottoman State and England towards the region were tried to be revealed
by examining researches, theses, articles and books in this field, primarily using Ottoman and British
archive documents.

Journal of Universal History Studies (JUHIS), 2024

Dams, in addition to the mission they fulfil, are among the most important structures as indicato... more Dams, in addition to the mission they fulfil, are among the most important structures as indicators of
civilization. In Anatolia, which has rich water resources, various dams were built by the Urartians, Hittites,
and Romans within the framework of the technical possibilities of the period. It is known that dams were
built by the Ottoman State from the 17th century onwards. Within the scope of the public works activities
accelerated after the proclamation of the Republic, waterworks were given special importance, and new
public institutions equipped with special authorities and responsibilities were established to ensure the
construction of dams to benefit from the flowing waters with the personal instructions of Mustafa Kemal
Atatürk. In 1939, after the Directorate of Water Affairs under the Ministry of Public Works became
operational, dam construction started to increase. However, with the uncertainty of the world situation
before World War II and the outbreak of World War II shortly thereafter, dam construction in Turkey, like
other public works activities, stagnated. Beginning in 1948, this stagnation ended with the receipt of
American aid and the implementation of an accelerated investment policy with the Democratic Party (DP)
government in 1950. However, the Republic of Turkey's resources were extremely inadequate for the
construction of dams and hydroelectric facilities, which are referred to as major water works in the country's
administration. This situation also posed another major problem and forced Turkey to seek foreign aid. In
particular, the applications made to obtain most of the loans from the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development, the need to find a consultant firm, and the attempts to obtain technical equipment and
personnel became a national struggle. The Western states, who considered Turkey within the scope of their
imperialist policies, often used this situation as an opportunity for their actions and thus Turkey was caught
in an imperialist spiral. This study evaluates the struggles to secure foreign support for the construction of
dams during the Democrat Party rule and the results of these struggles on the axis of the documents and
information reflected in the State Archives of the Republic of Turkey. In addition to archival documents,
the article utilizes parliamentary minutes, some press organs of the period, and copyrighted and analysed
works.
Keywords:Dem

Journal of Universal History Studies (JUHIS), 2024

The diversity regarding the social construct of Sudan, co-ruled under Anglo-Egyptian Condominium,... more The diversity regarding the social construct of Sudan, co-ruled under Anglo-Egyptian Condominium,
during the former half of 20th century led to remarkable crises with the administrative organisations
commencing to be instituted during the process of transition into modern governmental structuring. The
Southern Sudanese, unable to adapt to the Northern social construction prioritising Islam and Arabic culture
regarding language, religion and traditions, claiming equal rights concerning newly organised institutions
sparked civil unrest. Upon independence, Southerners struggled against the central government in an
organized way to have more say on the future of their country. The dominant, sovereign and center-oriented
policies of the Northerner leaders posed as the trigger underlying the Southerners being radicalized with
their discourses incorporating initially autonomy, and later total independence. The 1960’s, when the
independence effort of the nation was carried out via armed organisations systematically, not only eradicated
the peaceful atmosphere, but also brought out hostility between the parties formidable to overcome. This
study analyzes the representation issue (South-North Rivalry) regarding institutions during pre and postindependence periods and the political processes bringing forth the civil war.

Journal of Universal History Studies (JUHIS), 2024

This paper focuses on the rock tombs found at two locations within the Bozdağ Hills in the Araban... more This paper focuses on the rock tombs found at two locations within the Bozdağ Hills in the Araban district of Gaziantep. The tombs were discovered during the on-going "Pleistocene Period Survey" conducted in Gaziantep. In the study, we identified ten rock tombs of different types in the Köklüce Kanyon, formed by the Karasu Deresi, and in the Kömürlü Deresi, a seasonal tributary of the Karasu Deresi, within the borders of Köklüce neighbourhood in the Araban district of Gaziantep. The study of these rock tombs and their necropolises contributes to the understanding of the burial customs in the region and the rock tomb typology of the southern Komagene region. These rock tombs also provide important data for understanding the socio-economic differences and the size of rural settlements in the region in antiquity. The rock tombs of Kömürlü Deresi Vadisi are different from the rock grave typology found in the area and exhibit simple workmanship and plan. The dimensions of these tombs are smaller and have lower tomb chambers compared to the rock tomb examples known in the region and in general. In addition, the absence of a special burial area inside the tomb chambers indicates that the dead were left directly on the floor of the tomb chamber. With these characteristics, it becomes a new type of rock tomb in the typology of the region.

Journal of Universal History Studies (JUHIS), 2024

The Great Mongol Khans were leaders who played an essential role in establishing and expanding th... more The Great Mongol Khans were leaders who played an essential role in establishing and expanding the Mongol Empire. These leaders tried to keep the religious elements within the empire together since its establishment. Of course, in addition to the Mongol Khans’ attitudes, the period’s political conditions also greatly affected this. The Mongol Khans also took shape according to the political atmosphere of the period from the establishment and shaped their religious practices within this framework. Religious life during the Mongol Khan period presented a very colourful appearance. This situation caused the religious situation during the Mongol period to be quite complex and to change in the historical process. Although shamanist beliefs were widespread in the early Mongol periods, as the Mongols expanded their borders, they also tolerated the religions in the lands they “conquered” and accepted some elements of these religions. Due to the Mongols’ vast geography and the fact that they included different cultures, many religions, such as Islam, Buddhism, and Christianity, became widespread, and the Mongol Khans generally did not interfere with these religions and sometimes even protected them. The Mongols have encouraged religious tolerance and respected different beliefs since their founder, Chinggis Khan. Chinggis Khan had people of different religions as advisors in his administration, allowing them to practice their religion freely. This led to tolerance of Islam, Buddhism, Christianity, and other beliefs during the reign of Chinggis Khan’s successors. This policy facilitated trade and interaction between different peoples within the Mongol Empire and played an active role in gaining the loyalty of various ethnic and religious groups under their rule. Thus, people of other religions could rise to important positions within the empire. However, this tolerance policy differed in every period and place, and some Mongol khans could be more oppressive. In addition, religious attitudes during the Mongol khan period varied depending on political and strategic goals. Therefore, since the religious attitudes of the Mongol khans changed over time, it may not be easy to talk about a general religious attitude. In this study, the religious attitudes of the Mongolian Khans in the period from Chinggis Khan to Möngke are examined, and information is given about which religions the Mongolian Khans had and what kind of relationship they had.
Keywords: Mongols, Chinggis Khan, Ögödei, Güyüg, Möngke, Religious Attitude.

Journal of Universal History Studies (JUHIS), 2024

Yahudi tarihinin başlangıcında özel bir din adamı sınıfı mevcut değildir. Musa peygamber dönemind... more Yahudi tarihinin başlangıcında özel bir din adamı sınıfı mevcut değildir. Musa peygamber döneminde (yak.
M.Ö. XIII. yüzyıl) Yahudi ibadetlerinin çeşitlenmesi ve detaylanması sonrasında bir din adamı sınıfına ihtiyaç
duyulmuştur. Bu ihtiyaç sonucu dini görevleri yerine getirmek maksadıyla kohenler ortaya çıkmıştır. Genel
manada dini vazifelerle meşgul olan kohenler, kendi aralarında bir hiyerarşiye sahiptir. Bu hiyerarşinin tepesinde,
baş kohen bulunmaktadır. Başlangıç itibariyle dini bir makam olarak ortaya çıkan baş kohenlik, M.Ö. 586 yılında
Yahudilerin Babil’e sürülmesine kadar varlığını ve işleyişini bu çizgide sürdürmüştür. Ancak sürgün sonrası
dönemde, artık bir Yahudi Devleti’nin veya bir Yahudi monarkın mevcut olmaması gibi gelişmeler baş
kohenliğin yetkilerinin ve mahiyetinin genişlemesi sonucunu doğurmuştur. Bu çalışmada, baş kohenlik makamı
üzerindeki bahse konu değişim, Babil sürgünü sonrasından, MS 66-73 Yahudi-Roma Savaşına kadar geçen
süreçte, siyasallaşma kavramı çerçevesinde incelenmiştir. Ulaşılan sonuçlara göre, baş kohenliğin siyasallaşması
süreci, Yahudiler üzerindeki Pers hakimiyeti dönemi (M.Ö. 539-331) ile başlamaktadır. Büyük İskender’in
Yahudiye’yi ele geçirmesiyle Yahudiler Hellenistik kültürün idaresi altına girmiş ve Hellenistik baş rahiplik
anlayışından etkilenen baş kohenlik hızla siyasallaşmaya devam etmiştir. Sonraki süreçte Seleukos idaresi altına
giren Yahudilerin bu kutsal makamı, yeni otoritenin siyasi bir aracı haline dönüşmüştür. Seleukoslar sonrası
Yahudiye üzerinde kurulan Haşmonayim yönetiminde (M.Ö. 134 – 63) geleneksel çizgisinden oldukça
uzaklaşarak siyasi yetkilerle donatılan makam, bölgede doğrudan Roma hakimiyetinin tesis edilmesi sonrasında
Roma politikalarına hizmet eder hale gelmiştir. Netice itibariyle, baş kohenlik makamı sürgün sonrası dönemde
bariz şekilde siyasallaşmıştır. Makam üzerindeki siyasallaşma, yabancı yönetimler tarafından gerçekleştirilen
siyasallaşma ve Yahudiler tarafından gerçekleştirilen siyasallaştırma olmak üzere iki yönlüdür
At the beginning of Jewish history, there was no distinct class of clergy. After the diversification and detailing of Jewish
worship during the time of Moses, the need for a class of clergy arose, and eventually, the Jewish priests (kohanim)
emerged to perform religious duties. Generally occupied with religious tasks, the Jewish priests had a hierarchy among
themselves, with the Jewish high priest (kohen gadol) at the top. Originally emerging as a religious office, the Jewish
high priesthood maintained its existence and function along these lines until the Babylonian exile of the Jews in 586
BCE. However, developments such as the absence of a Jewish state or monarch after the exile led to an expansion of
the authority and nature of the Jewish high priesthood. In this study, the aforementioned changes in the office of the
Jewish high priesthood have been examined within the framework of the politicization concept, from the post-exilic
period to the Jewish-Roman War of 66-73 CE. The process of politicization ofthe Jewish high priesthood begins with
the Persian rule over the Jews. With the conquest of Judea by Alexander the Great, the Jews came under the rule of
Hellenistic culture, and the Jewish high priesthood, influenced by the Hellenistic high priestly model, continued to
politicize. In the subsequent period under the rule of the Seleucids, this sacred office of the Jews became a political tool
of the new authority. Under the Hasmonean rule established after the Seleucids, the office, deviating significantlyfrom
its traditional line, was endowed with political powers and eventually served Roman policies after the establishment of
direct Roman rule in the region. Ultimately, the office of the Jewish high priesthood underwent significant politicization
in the post-exilic period. The politicization of the office occurred in two directions: politicization carried out by foreign
administrations and politicization carried out by Jews.

Journal of Universal History Studies (JUHIS), 2024

Türkler, ilk olarak Orta Asya’da tarih sahnesine çıkmışlar ve dünyanın farklı bölgelerine yayılmı... more Türkler, ilk olarak Orta Asya’da tarih sahnesine çıkmışlar ve dünyanın farklı bölgelerine yayılmışlardır.
Türkler, iç işlerinde ve dış ilişkilerinde kendilerine özgü haberleşme yöntemleri geliştirmişlerdir. İnsan
faktörü, haberleşmede birinci derecede rol oynamıştır. Diplomatik ilişkilerin kurulmasında ve iletişimin
sağlanmasında temel görev insana aittir. Orta Asya’da haberleşme yöntemleri hakkındaki ilk bilgiler İskitler
Dönemi’ni kapsamaktadır. Yunan yazarı Herodotos’a göre İskitlerin habercileri vardır.Teşkilatlı bir devlet
yapısı oluşturarak haberleşmeye önem veren Asya Hunları, kendilerinden sonraki Türk devletlerine model
olmuşlardır. Avrupa Hun, Gök Türk ve Uygur devletlerinde de haberleşmeye önem verilmiştir. Orta Asya
ilk Türk devletleri elçi ve ulak yoluyla iletişim kurmuşlardır. İslamiyet’ten önce Türkler birbirlerine ve diğer
devletlere mektuplar göndermişlerdir. Eski Türkçe metinlerde geçen bitig kavramı, iletişimin mektuplarla
da sağlandığını göstermektedir. Türklerde ok, savaş silahı olmasının yanı sıra haberleşme aracı olarak da
kullanılmıştır. Orta Asya’da yaşayan ilk Türkler haberleşmede at, güvercin, kartal gibi hayvanlardan
faydalanmışlardır. Türkler, kendi aralarında seslenerek iletişim sağlamışlardır. Davul ve boru sesi bu tür
haberleşmeye örnek verilebilir. Türkler haberleşmede ateş ve duman yöntemini de uygulamışlardır.
Haberleşme yöntemlerin çeşitliliği Türklerin ileri bir medeniyete sahip olduklarını göstermektedir.
Turks first appeared on the stage of history in Central Asia and spread to different parts of the world. Turks
have developed their own methods of communication in their internal affairs and foreign relations. The
human factor, played a primary role in communication. The main responsibility in establishing diplomatic
relations and ensuring communication belongs to humans. The first information about communication
methods in Central Asia covers the Scythian period. According to the Greek writer Herodotus, the Scythians
had messengers. Asian Huns who gave importance to communication by creating an organized state
structure, became a model for the Turkish states after them. Communication was also given importance in
the European Hun, Gök Turk and Uyghur states. The first Turkish states of Central Asia communicated by
via ambassador and messenger. Before İslam Turks send letters to each other and other states. The concept
of bitig in old Turkish texts shows that communication was also privided through letters. In Turks, arrows
were used as a means of communication as well as a weapon of war. The first Turks who lived in Central
Asia used animals such as eagles, pigeons, horses in communication. Turks communicated by calling out
among themselves. Drums and horn sounds can be given as examples of this type of communication. Turks
also used the fire and smoke method in communication. The diversity of communication methods shows
that Turks have an advanced civilization.

Journal of Universal History Studies (JUHIS), 2024

Vergiler, devletlerin kalkınması için temel gelir kaynaklarının başında gelmektedir. Eski Çin’in ... more Vergiler, devletlerin kalkınması için temel gelir kaynaklarının başında gelmektedir. Eski Çin’in farklı
evrelerinde bazı temel kullanım ürünlerine olan talebin fazla olması, ülke yönetiminin o ürünlerden vergi
almasına sebep olmuştur. Tuz, bu temel ürünlerin başında gelmektedir. Çin’in feodal döneminin en erken
evrelerinden itibaren tuzdan alınan vergi, devlet hazinesine katkı sağlamıştır. Dünyanın diğer ülkelerinden
farklı olarak tuzun Çin’de keşfedildiğine inanılması ve onu ilk keşfeden kişiye “Tuzun Atası” unvanının
verilmesi, günümüz Çin’indeki bir kentte Tuz Vergisi Müzesi açılması Çin’de tuza atfedilen önemi gözler
önüne sermektedir. Çin’in en parlak dönemlerinin başında gelen Tang Hanedanı’nın erken dönemlerinde
tuzdan vergi alınmazken; hanedanın geç döneminde yarı Türk soylu bir isyancının ayaklanması sonucunda
zedelenen ekonomik durumu düzeltmek için tuz vergisine ihtiyaç duyulmuştur. Bu vergilendirme her ne
kadar ekonomik olarak beklenen faydayı sağlamış olsa da sonraki süreçte beklenmedik başka isyanların
ortaya çıkmasına sebep olmuş ve hanedanın sonunu getiren etmenlerden biri olmuştur. Çoğunlukla Çin
klasiklerine dayalı olarak hazırlanan çalışmada, Çin’de tuzun ne denli önemli olduğu, hangi Çince kaynakta
ne şekilde geçtiği, Tang Hanedanı’nın ilk dönemlerinde tuz vergisi uygulanmazken; ileri dönemlerinde
neden uygulandığı ve tuz vergisinin hanedan üzerindeki etkilerinin neler olduğu sorularına cevap aranmıştır.
Taxes are one of the main sources of income for the development of states. The high demand for some basic
products in different eras of ancient China caused government to impose taxes on those products. Salt is one
of these basic products. From the earliest eras of ancient China, salt tax had contributed to the state treasury.
Unlike other countries around the world, the belief that salt was discovered in China and the title of
"Ancestor of Salt" was given to the person who discovered it and the opening of the Salt Tax Museum in a
city of China reveals the importance attributed to salt in China. While there was no tax on salt in the early
periods of the Tang Dynasty, one of the most brilliant periods of China; in the late period of the dynasty, salt
tax was needed to straighten the economic situation that was damaged as a result of the uprising of a halfTurkic origined rebel. Although this taxation provided the expected economic benefit, it caused other
unexpected rebellions to emerge in the following period and brought the end of the dynasty. The study
prepared mostly based on Chinese classics seeks answers to the questions of how important salt was in
China, how it is mentioned in which Chinese sources, why the salt tax was not applied in the early periods
of the Tang Dynasty while it was applied in the later periods and what the effects of the salt tax were on the
dynasty.

Journal of Universal History Studies (JUHIS), 2024

The Assyrian kings, who reached the peak of their power in the Near East between 934-612 BC, imp... more The Assyrian kings, who reached the peak of their power in the Near East between 934-612 BC,
implemented various practices that would help them maintain their military and political dominance.
Assyria's policy towards foreign royal captives, hostages, and refugees can also be considered within these
practices. Assyria's policy was expected to preserve peace and keep some lands under control without war.
The Assyrian kings carried the enemy kings and their family members whom they defeated as a result of
military campaigns to Assyrian centres and captivated them, aiming to break the resistance of those regions
and intimidate their enemies. In addition, Assyria aimed to gain some binding advantages to make the
agreements permanent by taking hostages from the kings with whom it made agreements or made them
swear allegiance. For this purpose, noble captives and hostages were subjected to Assyrian education and
were tried to turn into allies who could be appointed as rulers of their countries in the future. Assyrian kings
also wanted to establish their relations with these kingdoms on a binding and permanent basis by including
the daughters of enemy or allied kings in their harems. Finally, they protected the noble people who took
refuge in them in Assyrian cities and even helped them to become kings in their countries, depending on the
changes in the political situation. Thus, the Assyrian kings thought that they could create rulers loyal to
themselves.Based on cuneiform documents, this study investigates the Assyrian practice of taking captives
and hostages, the position and status of foreign princesses sent to the Assyrian court, and the place of
refugees in Assyrian policy. The study aims to reveal all aspects of Assyria's policy and to draw a portrait of
the lives of foreign royals in the Assyrian court and cities. The primary sources used in this study are the
royal inscriptions and the Assyrian state archive.
MÖ 934-612 yılları arasında Yakındoğu’da gücünün zirvesine ulaşan Asur kralları askeri ve politik açıdan
hakimiyetlerini sürdürmelerine fayda sağlayacak çeşitli uygulamaları hayata geçirmişlerdir. Asur’un
yabancı kraliyet soylu esirlere, rehinelere ve sığınmacılara yönelik politikası da bu uygulamalar içerisinde
değerlendirilebilir. Asur’un bu politikası hem barışın korunmasına hem de savaşmaksızın bazı bölgelerin
kontrol altında tutulması amacına hizmet etmesi beklenmekteydi. Asur kralları askeri seferler sonucunda
yenilgiye uğrattığı düşman kralları ve onların aile üyelerini Asur merkezlerine taşıyarak esir etmiş ve bunu
yaparken hem o bölgelerin direncini kırmayı hem de düşmanlarına açık bir gözdağı vermeyi amaçlamıştır.
Bunun yanında antlaşma yaptığı ya da biat ettirdiği krallardan da rehineler alarak aradaki antlaşmaları kalıcı
olmasına yönelik birtakım bağlayıcı avantajlar kazanmayı hedeflemiştir. Bu amaç doğrultusunda soylu esir
ve rehineler Asur eğitimine tabi tutulmuş ve ileride ülkelerine yönetici olarak atanabilecek müttefiklere
dönüştürülmeye çalışılmıştır. Asur kralları ayrıca düşman ya da müttefik kralların kızlarını haremine dahil
ederek de bu krallıklarla ilişiklerini bağlayıcı ve kalıcı bir düzleme oturtmak istemişlerdir. Son olarak
kendilerine sığınan soylu kişileri Asur kentlerinde koruma altına alarak siyasi durumdaki değişiklere göre
bunların ülkelerinde kral olmalarına dahi yardımcı olmuştur. Böylece Asur kralları kendilerine sadık
yöneticiler yaratabileceklerini düşünmüşlerdir. Bu araştırmada çivi yazılı belgelerden hareketle Asur esir ve
rehin alma pratiği, Asur sarayına gönderilen yabancı prenseslerin konumları ve durumları ve sığınmacıların
Asur politikası içerisindeki yeri araştırılmıştır. Çalışma ile Asur’un bu politikasının tüm yönlerinin ortaya
konulması ve yabancı kraliyet soylularının Asur sarayındaki ve kentlerindeki hayatlarına dair bir portre
çizilmesi hedeflenmektedir. Kraliyet yazıtları ve Asur devlet arşivi çalışmamızda kullanılan temel
kaynaklardır.

Journal of Universal History Studies (JUHIS), 2024

10. yy’da Karadeniz’in kuzeyindeki bozkırlarda önemli rol oynayan Peçenekler, bölgede çıkarları o... more 10. yy’da Karadeniz’in kuzeyindeki bozkırlarda önemli rol oynayan Peçenekler, bölgede çıkarları olan
Bizanslıların ve Rusların dikkatlerini çekmiştir. Bizans ve Rus kaynakları, sınır komşusu oldukları
Peçenekler hakkında bilgiler sunmaktadır. Ten, Kuban, Orta-Aşağı Özi, Kırım ve Tuna’yı içine alan 2000
km2
’lik alanı kapsayan Karadeniz’in kuzeyindeki bozkırlarda siyasi ve ticari çıkarları olan güçler,
Peçeneklerle menfaatleri mucibince dostane ilişki çerçevesinde ittifak kurmaya çalışmışlar, yeri geldiğinde
ise düşman olarak görüp savaşmışlardır. 941 ve 944 yıllarında Rusların Bizanslılara saldırıları, bölgedeki
ittifak dengelerini sarsmış ve siyasi güçlerin politikalarını gözden geçirmelerine neden olmuştur. Özellikle
Knyaz Igor’un ölümünden sonra 20 yıl durağan kalan Ruslar, Knyaz I. Svyatoslav’ın iktidarı ele almasıyla
genişleme politikası kapsamında saldırılara başlamışlardır. Bu dinamik olaylar karşısında siyasi güçler
arasında yeni ittifakların ve antlaşmaların yapılması kaçınılmaz olmuştur.
Bu çalışmada, 941-972 yılları arasında Karadeniz’in kuzeyindeki konjonktür genel hatlarıyla aktarılmaya
çalışılmış ve bölgede Bizanslıların, Rusların, Peçeneklerin ve kısmi de olsa Hazarların birbirleriyle olan
ilişkileri değerlendirilmiştir. Kaynakların yetersiz kaldığı yerlerde hipotezler kurularak çıkarımlarda
bulunulmuştur.
In the 10th century, the Pechenegs, played an important role in the North Black Sea steppes, attracted the
attention of the Byzantines and Russians, had interests in the region. Byzantine and Russian sources provide
information about the Pechenegs, who were their neighboring borderland people. The powers with political
and commercial interests in the North Black Sea steppes, covering an area of 2000 km2
including the Ten,
Kuban, Middle-Lower Ozi, Kırım and Danube, tried to establish an alliance with the Pechenegs within the
framework of friendly relations at times, and at other times they saw them as enemies and fought against
them. In 941 and 944, the Russian attacks on the Byzantines shook the balance of alliances in the region
and caused the political powers to reconsider their policies. Especially after the death of Igor, the Russians
who remained static for 20 years, started to attack within the scope of expansion policy after Svyatoslav I
took power. In the face of these dynamic events, new alliances and agreements between political powers
became inevitable.
In this study, the conjuncture in the North Black Sea steppes between 941-972 has been tried to be described
in general terms and the relations between the Byzantines, Russians, Pechenegs and, partially, Khazars in
the region have been tried to be evaluated. Where the sources were insufficient, hypotheses were
hypothesized and inferences were made.

Journal of Universal History Studies (JUHIS), 2024

Throughout history, there have been many politicians whose names are remembered and often recogni... more Throughout history, there have been many politicians whose names are remembered and often recognized
for their achievements in battles. We have come to know some of them closely due to their administrative
initiatives. However, politicians who have made a name in every field are rare. One of these rare figures is
Sayyid AjallShams al-Din Omar Bukhari, who gained fame for his reforms and the spread of Islam in
China. Indeed, we are familiar with many politicians mainly for their war successes. However, those who
have left their mark on the dusty pages of history in various fields are indeed rare. One such figure is Sayyid
AjallShams al-Din Omar Bukhari, who made a name for himself with his reforms and the spread of Islam
in China in the 12th century. This significant personality, who succeeded in bringing Islam to China in the
mid-12th century, began to serve the Mongols after the capture of Bukhara by Genghis Khan in the year
616/1220. Due to his administrative abilities and knowledge of languages, Shams al-Din Omar attracted
the attention of the Mongol Khans and was appointed as the governor of Yunnan. The reforms he
implemented there quickly gained the love and acceptance of the people. The sympathy he gained
facilitated the rapid spread of Islam in these lands. In this context, the article will focus on the identity,
reforms, and contributions of Sayyid AjallShams al-Din Omar Bukhari, who is claimed to be from the
lineage of the Prophet to the process of the spread of Islam in China.

Journal of Universal History Studies (JUHIS), 2024

Since the earliest times of human history, mining has been one of states' most important strategi... more Since the earliest times of human history, mining has been one of states' most important strategic resources.
The Ottoman Empire also benefited from different natural mineral resources within the framework of the
existing opportunities in the vast geography it ruled in the six centuries from its establishment to its collapse.
However, due to technical developments, there were significant developments in the world's mining field
in the 19th century. For modern mining activities in Europe to be carried out in Ottoman lands, it became
necessary to make some basic arrangements. In this context, the institutionalization of the mining field in
the state's bureaucratic structure and the establishment of a legal basis were first emphasized. In addition, the
lack of a particular education system for this field in the Ottoman Empire brought about the need for
engineers, and foreign mining engineers were employed. The activities of the German mining engineer
Wilhelm Fischbach, one of the first foreign engineers to enter the service of the Ottoman Empire in the
second half of the 19th century, constitute the subject of this study. The archival documents in the Presidency
of the Republic of Türkiye, Directorate of State Archives, and the records in the Directorate of Mineral
Research and Exploration archive constitute the central axis of the study. W. Fischbach, who worked in the
Ottoman mines for nearly half a century, was not only an essential part of the production and inspection
processes in many mining sites but also wrote his views on the Ottoman mining sector with his reports. He
also experimented with his invention, a gold prospecting machine.

Uzun yaşamı boyunca dört kez başbakanlık yapmış olan William Ewart Gladstone hem İngiliz tarihi h... more Uzun yaşamı boyunca dört kez başbakanlık yapmış olan William Ewart Gladstone hem İngiliz tarihi hem
de dünya siyaseti için iz bırakmış bir devlet adamıdır. 5 Eylül 1876 yılında yayımladığı ünlü kitapçığı
“Bulgar Mezalimi ve Şark Meselesi” ile Osmanlı imparatorluğu içinde yaşanan olaylara katılması gerek
1876-1878 Yakın Doğu krizini gerekse de Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’na yönelik İngiliz politikasının
oluşmasında belirleyici olmuştur. Gladstone’un Hristiyan tebaanınTürk yönetimiyle idaresine yönelik her
zaman şüpheleri mevcuttur. Kitapçığının temel eksenini de bu düşünceleri oluşturmaktadır. İngiliz-Osmanlı
ilişkileri tarihinin dönüm noktası, İngiliz Parlamento tartışmalarının ve Liberal devlet adamı Gladstone'un
politikalarının incelenmesinde yatmaktadır. Bununla birlikte, Gladstone'un Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'na
yönelik İngiliz diplomasisinin oluşumunda Bulgar İsyanı’ndaki bu çıkışı Disraeli'nin 1877-1878 RusOsmanlı Savaşı'ndaki Türk yanlısı tarafsızlığından vazgeçişe yol açmış ve akabinde Gladstone liderliğinde
1882'de Mısır'ın İngilizler tarafından işgali gerçekleşmiştir. Gladstone’un “Bulgar Mezalimi ve Şark
Meselesi” kitapçığındaki retorik öfkesindeki, “insanlığın yüz karası Türklerin pılı pırtısıyla Avrupa’dan
çıkarmak” düşüncesinin yahut dini kızgınlığının politikalarını etkileyip etkilemediği düşüncesi tartışmaya
açıktır. Bu çalışma, Gladstone’un düşüncelerinin ve kitapçığının Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’na yönelik İngiliz
politikasının oluşumundaki önemini analiz edecektir.

The portrait bust, which is well-preserved in garden of the Burdur Museum, was acquired by the mu... more The portrait bust, which is well-preserved in garden of the Burdur Museum, was acquired by the museum in 1987. The
artefact, which was purchased from a citizen, wasfound in the central village of Çallıca in Burdur. The portrait bust, thought
to be a find from Cormasa near the village, was sculpted from limestone.The bust of the woman, which has not been published
until the present day, has been identified by the necklace around her neck and her iconography, and a period has been suggested
by the hairstyle on her head and other stylistic features. The crescent motif at the end of the necklace designed with multiple
spheres around the woman's neck is important for the identity of the artefact. The woman portrait with the shawl on her head
and the necklace around her neck symbolizes the priestess of Men. This shows that the cult of Men, of whomcentrein Pisidia
is Antioch, was also present in Burdur. The woman head with the “Ceres” type hairstyle, which was designed with wavy
hair tresses separated from the centre of the forehead on both sides and tightly processed at the transitions, was sculpted by
being inspired by the portraits of the emperor's wife Vibia Sabina during the period of Hadrian (117-138 AD). The other
stylistic features in the woman portrait, of which hairstyle fashion suggests the Hadrian period, also make it possible to date
the artefact to the Early Hadrian period. There was a strong Neoclassicism during the period of emperor Hadrian. Therefore,
in the portraits of the period, the characteristic features of the sculpted people were idealized (beautified). The characteristics
of the portrayed woman, on the other hand, are realistic.Finally, in the Late Hadrian period (after 130 AD), the pupil and iris
were carved with a single drill stroke for the first time. On the woman head, the pupil and iris were not processed, althoughthe
characteristic features were realistically reflected. With these important stylistic features, it is possible to date the priestess of
Men to before 130 AD.

Bu araştırmada 1878-1920 yılları arasında Kars’ta Rum nüfusu ele alınmaktadır. Kars’ta ilk Rum ye... more Bu araştırmada 1878-1920 yılları arasında Kars’ta Rum nüfusu ele alınmaktadır. Kars’ta ilk Rum yerleşimi
1865 öncesine dayanmasına karşın topluluğun yoğun olarak gelmesi, 1877-1878 Osmanlı Rus Harbi’nde
(93 Harbi) kentin Çarlık Rusya işgaline girmesi ile başlamıştır. Çarlık Rusya yaklaşık kırk yıl süren işgal
süresince kentten göç ettirdiği Müslümanlar yerine kendine sadık toplulukları yerleştirmiştir. Bu kapsamda
Anadolu’dan ve Kafkasya’dan Rumlar kente göç ettirilmiştir. Rumların farklı coğrafyalardan olması
aralarında bir ayrımı da beraberinde getirmiştir. Bu ayrım topluluk arasında sürekli olarak kendini
hissettirmiştir.
Kars’a göç eden Rumların büyük kısmı çiftçi olduğundan köylere yerleştirilmişlerdir. Tarım ve
hayvancılıkla uğraşan Rumlar, kendileri ile beraber getirdikleri keçi ırkının farklı topluluklar tarafından da
yetiştirilmesini sağlamışlardır. Çiftçiliğin yanı sıra taş ustası olan Rumlar ise kentin imaret faaliyetlerinde
çalışmak üzere kent merkezine yerleştirilmiştir. Ortodoks inancının yaygınlaştırılması için desteklenen Rum
din adamları ise kent merkezinde olduğu gibi köylerde de etkin bir şekilde faaliyet yürütmüşlerdir. Yoğun
olarak köylerde yaşayan Rumlar, kentten ayrılmadan hemen önce yaşanan siyasi gelişmelerde aktif rol
oynamışlardır. Balkan Savaşları’na kadar Müslümanlar ile iyi ilişkiler kuran topluluk, onlarla kültürel
etkileşim içinde bulunmuştur. Balkan Savaşları’nda Yunanistan için Rus yönetiminin desteğiyle yardım
toplamışlardır. Türklerin bu duruma tepki göstermesi o güne kadar büyük oranda iyi şekilde sürdürülen
ilişkileri bozmuştur. Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nın gergin ortamında ilişkiler iyice bozulmuştur. Bolşevik İhtilali
sonrasında yaşanan siyasi boşlukta Rumların bir kısmı çete faaliyetleri yürütmüşlerdir. Kentin yeniden
Osmanlı Devleti himayesine girmesi ile kentten ayrılan Rumlar, Tiflis ve Batum’a; oradan da bir kısmı
Yunanistan’a göç etmiştir.
Araştırmada Rumların, Kars’ın Çarlık Rusya’nın işgal yıllarında en kalabalık topluluklardan birisi olduğu,
kente göç etmeleri, sosyoekonomik durumları, siyasal gelişmeler karşısında tavırları, kentte bıraktıkları izler
ve kentten ayrılmaları birinci el kaynaklar başta olmak üzere araştırma eserleri çerçevesinde ele alınmıştır.

The Ottoman-Russian War of 1877-1878 was one of the most important events that marked the last ce... more The Ottoman-Russian War of 1877-1878 was one of the most important events that marked the last century
of the Ottoman Empire. In this war, the armies of both sides faced each other on the Balkan and Caucasian
fronts, and the Balkan Front was the war’s center of gravity. Having crossed the Danube, the Russian army
quickly advanced south and captured the Shipka pass. Thus, the road to Istanbul was opened for the
Russians. In the same days, the Vidin Corps under the command of Osman Pasha came to Pleven and took
positions in the city. Before descending to the south of the Balkan Mountains, the Russians decided to
capture Pleven and attacked the city three times. In Pleven, the Ottoman forces repelled these attacks and
stopped the Russian operation for five months. In this way, they prevented a defeat that would come much
earlier for the Ottoman Empire. Osman Pasha halted the Russian army by defending Pleven for five months.
In this way, he allowed the Ottoman Commander-in-Chief to change the war’s fate. The Ottoman
command, however, could not be able to use this opportunity. Finally, the supplies in the city were exhausted
and there was no possibility of defense. Osman Pasha decided to break the siege with a breaktrough
operation, but was wounded and had to surrender. Shortly after the fall of Pleven, the Russian armies came
to Istanbul and the war ended. Despite the defeat, the defense of Pleven had a great impact and was
appreciated all over the world.

1950 yılında iktidara gelen Demokrat Parti, dört yıllık icraatlarının halkın çoğunluğu tarafından... more 1950 yılında iktidara gelen Demokrat Parti, dört yıllık icraatlarının halkın çoğunluğu tarafından tasvip
edilmesinden dolayı 1954 seçimlerinde yüksek oranda oy almıştır. Fakat seçim sonrasındaki süreçte
muhalefetle ve özellikle CHP ile olan sürtüşmeleriyle öne çıkmıştır. Çıkarttığı kanunlarla muhalif kanadı ve
basını denetim altına almaya çalışan iktidar karşısında muhalefet, sürekli olarak itirazlarda bulunmuştur.
1957 yılına gelindiğinde iktidar-muhalefet çekişmesi en üst düzeylere ulaşmıştır. Erken bir seçimin
olacağının konuşulmaya başlandığı bu yılın şubat ayından başlamak üzere, DP ile CHP arasında “bahar
havası” olarak adlandırılan ve birkaç ay süren sakin bir dönem yaşanmıştır. İnönü ve Menderes bahar
havasının iki önemli simgesi haline gelmiştir. Diğer muhalif partiler ve liderler ise sürecin dışında
tutulmuştur. DP-CHP arasındaki yakınlaşmanın tek faydalı sonucu ise Kırşehir’in il yapılması olmuştur.
Fakat CMP lideri Bölükbaşı’nın dokunulmazlığının kaldırılması sakin geçen süreci sonlandırmıştır. Zaten
CHP içerisinde de yaşanan bahar havasının partiye zarar verdiği yönünde şikâyetler çoktan başlamıştır.
Çalışmamızda, bahsi geçen ılımlı siyasi dönem ve bu süreçte yaşanan gelişmeler yansıtılmıştır. Makale
hazırlanırken meclis tutanakları, dönemin basını, arşiv belgeleri, telif ve tetkik eserlerden yararlanılmıştır.

Journal of Universal History Studies (JUHIS), 2024