James Lake - Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by James Lake
The near-death experience (NDE) as an inherited predisposition: possible genetic, epigenetic and symbolic mechanisms, 2019
The argument in overview The paper is divided into four parts. In Part I, I review principle NDE ... more The argument in overview The paper is divided into four parts. In Part I, I review principle NDE models, important recent research findings and limitations of NDE research I remark on the absence of consensus on an explanatory model of NDEs. Part II begins with an overview of NDE evolutionary thinking up until now. I define an NDE predisposition as a specialized kind of higher cognitive trait and argue that this predisposition probably originated from a pre-adaptation that permitted early hominins to have self-reflective awareness and experience specialized states of consciousness involving complex mental imagery ensuring flexible adaptive responses to unpredictable or life-threatening situations. I argue that a model of evolutionary dynamics underlying an NDE predisposition must be contextualized in a more general theory that views body-brain-environment as a dynamic complex system influenced by biological, psychological and symbolic processes. I describe evolutionary scenarios that may have led to the origin and persistence of an NDE predisposition in populations through direct, indirect or neutral selection involving both biological and nonbiological inheritance mechanisms. Specifically, I examine the evolutionary dynamics of an NDE predisposition from the perspectives of multi-factorial fitness landscapes, the neuronal replicator hypothesis, socio-cultural, behavioral and symbolic inheritance systems. I contrast NDEs reported in the context of life-threatening situations to phenomenologically similar experiences that frequently take place in non-life-threatening contexts such as dreams and in trance. I examine claims of spiritual and psychological changes following both pleasant and frightening NDEs in the context of different evolutionary scenarios. In Part III I discuss possible neural mechanisms underlying evolutionary dynamics of an NDE predisposition. Topics covered include heritable modules that solve problems related to survival , implications of functional integration of the limbic system and neocortex, the concept of brain-to-brain replication of semantic information as a pre-adaptation required for socio-cultural transmission of NDE narratives as memes, and the possible roles of epigenetic mechanisms in shaping the inheritance and transmission of an NDE predisposition. In Part IV I critique the various evolutionary scenarios discussed in the paper and argue that an NDE predisposition probably originated and persists through the operation of multi-factorial biological, social and symbolic processes that shape inheritance. I argue that an NDE predisposition could have resulted from direct or indirect selection or both direct and indirect selection depending on factors that shape evolutionary dynamics of different populations at different times. Finally, I make recommendations for improvements in methodology in near-death research broadly, and propose field studies that may clarify the relative contributions of genetic, epigenetic and social mechanisms influencing the evolutionary dynamics of an NDE predisposition. Part I: background Principle NDE models and recent research
Journal of Nonlocality, Jun 26, 2014
In spite of millennia of introspection, research and debate, there is still no compelling evidenc... more In spite of millennia of introspection, research and debate, there is still no compelling evidence for any single model of consciousness . Nor is there agreement on how to define consciousness, what constitutes a rigorous model of consciousness, and what research methods are most appropriate or productive when investigating consciousness. Current science relies on biological models of brain function as metaphors for describing what consciousness does and cannot confirm postulated causal relationships between discrete functional brain states and specific characteristics or subjective "states" of consciousness. The absence of a strong conceptual framework for thinking about consciousness, together with intrinsic limitations of contemporary research methods and technologies, have resulted in numerous un-testable hypotheses concerning the general nature of consciousness and a paralyzing lack of consensus on research priorities and methods , despite the fact that "mind" and "brain" have supplanted genetics as the next great scientific challenge for the international community -see the Human Brain Project in the EU and the BRAIN Initiative in the US (http://www.nih.gov/science/brain).
EEG biofeedback and Quantitative EEG (QEEG) are gradually emerging into mainstream psychiatry and... more EEG biofeedback and Quantitative EEG (QEEG) are gradually emerging into mainstream psychiatry and medicine as promising diagnostic and treatment approaches in Western Europe and North America. In the U.S. two professional societies are devoted to training and research in both approaches. ii Current research shows that QEEG can be a useful adjunct in the assessment of a variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders, and EEG biofeedback provides a useful therapy for a number of common disorders. Both EEG and QEEG represent truly complementary therapies, based on a targeted re-regulation of cortical and sub-cortical electrical rhythms not addressed by mainstream medical therapies.
Alternative therapies in health and medicine
Integrative approaches will lead to more accurate and different understandings of mental illness.... more Integrative approaches will lead to more accurate and different understandings of mental illness. Beneficial responses to complementary and alternative therapies provide important clues about the phenomenal nature of the human body in space-time and disparate biological, informational, and energetic factors associated with normal and abnormal psychological functioning. The conceptual framework of contemporary Western psychiatry includes multiple theoretical viewpoints, and there is no single best explanatory model of mental illness. Future theories of mental illness causation will not depend exclusively on empirical verification of strictly biological processes but will take into account both classically described biological processes and non-classical models, including complexity theory, resulting in more complete explanations of the characteristics and causes of symptoms and mechanisms of action that result in beneficial responses to treatments. Part 1 of this article examines the...
Environmental monitoring and assessment, 2002
Stable nitrogen isotope ratios (delta15N) of freshwater mussels from a series of lakes and ponds ... more Stable nitrogen isotope ratios (delta15N) of freshwater mussels from a series of lakes and ponds were related to watershed land use characteristics to assess their utility in determining the source of nitrogen inputs to inland water bodies. Nitrogen isotope ratios measured in freshwater mussels from 19 lakes and ponds in Rhode Island, U.S.A., ranged from 4.9-12.6 per thousand and were found to significantly correlate with the fraction of residential development in 100 and 200 m buffer zones around the ponds. Mussel delta15N values in 12 of the 19 ponds also showed significant correlation with average dissolved nitrate concentrations, which ranged from 23-327 microg L(-1). These observations, in light of previous studies which link elevated delta15N values of nitrogen derived from septic wastewater with those seen in biota, suggest that mussel isotope ratios may reflect nitrogen source in freshwater ecosystems. We followed an iterative approach using multiple regression analysis to a...
The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 2010
The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 2006
The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 2005
This study, using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technology, demonstrated that dist... more This study, using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technology, demonstrated that distant intentionality (DI), defined as sending thoughts at a distance, is correlated with an activation of certain brain functions in the recipients. Eleven healers who espoused some form for connecting or healing at a distance were recruited from the island of Hawaii. Each healer selected a person with whom they felt a special connection as a recipient for DI. The recipient was placed in the MRI scanner and isolated from all forms of sensory contact from the healer. The healers sent forms of DI that related to their own healing practices at random 2-minute intervals that were unknown to the recipient. Significant differences between experimental (send) and control (no send) procedures were found (p ϭ 0.000127). Areas activated during the experimental procedures included the anterior and middle cingulate area, precuneus, and frontal area. It was concluded that instructions to a healer to make an intentional connection with a sensory isolated person can be correlated to changes in brain function of that individual.
EXPLORE: The Journal of Science and Healing, 2012
This paper provides an overview of the rapidly evolving paradigm of "Integrative Mental Health (I... more This paper provides an overview of the rapidly evolving paradigm of "Integrative Mental Health (IMH)." The paradigm of contemporary biomedical psychiatry and its contrast to nonallopathic systems of medicine is initially reviewed, followed by an exploration of the emerging paradigm of IMH, which aims to reconcile the bio-psycho-socio-spiritual model with evidencebased methods from traditional healing practices. IMH is rapidly transforming conventional understandings of mental illness and has significant positive implications for the day-to-day practice of mental health care. IMH incorporates mainstream interventions such as pharmacologic treatments, psychotherapy, and psychosocial interventions, as well as alternative therapies such as acupuncture, herbal and nutritional medicine, dietary modification, meditation, etc. Two recent international conferences in Europe and the United States show that interest in integrative mental health care is growing rapidly. In response, the International Network of Integrative Mental Health (INIMH: www.INIMH. org) was established in 2010 with the objective of creating an international network of clinicians, researchers, and public health advocates to advance a global agenda for research, education, and clinical practice of evidence-based integrative mental health care. The paper concludes with a discussion of emerging opportunities for research in IMH, and an exploration of potential clinical applications of integrative mental health care.
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 1991
Current environmental models use organism lipid concentrations to estimate maximum pollutant bioa... more Current environmental models use organism lipid concentrations to estimate maximum pollutant bioaccumulation potentials. This collaborative study has shown that significantly different lipid concentrations (3.5~) are found when using common, but different, extraction solvents and methods. Based on these variable lipid values, models that estimate tissue pollutant concentrations normalized to lipid will give significantly different bioaccumulation estimates. To reduce that variability, a standard lipid method needs to be developed or adopted.
Most currently used psychotropic agents have limited efficacy, significant side-effect and toxici... more Most currently used psychotropic agents have limited efficacy, significant side-effect and toxicity problems, and are unavailable to approximately 80% of the World"s population. The development of efficacious and safe psychotropic medications based on naturally occurring substances used in non-allopathic healing traditions would represent a significant contribution to global mental health care. Rigorous empirical validation of indigenous treatments for neuopsychiatric symptoms
Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 2011
Overview: Complementary and Alternative Medicines (CAMs) are frequently given to children and ado... more Overview: Complementary and Alternative Medicines (CAMs) are frequently given to children and adolescents for reputed benefits in the treatment of hyperkinetic and concentration disorders such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). In such vulnerable populations high quality evidence is required to support such claims. Aims: The aim of the paper is to assess the current evidence of herbal and nutritional interventions for ADHD using a systematic search of clinical trials meeting an acceptable standard of evidence. Methods: PubMed, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library and CINAHL were searched up to May 26th, 2011 for randomised, controlled clinical trials using CAM products as interventions to treat ADHD. A quality analysis using a purpose-designed scale, and an estimation of effect sizes (Cohen's d) where data were available, were also calculated. Results: The review revealed that 16 studies met inclusion criteria, with predominant evidentiary support found for zinc, iron, Pinus marinus (French maritime pine bark), and a Chinese herbal formula (Ningdong); and mixed (mainly inconclusive) evidence for omega-3, and L-acetyl carnitine. Current data suggest that Ginkgo biloba (ginkgo), and Hypercium perforatum (St. John's wort) are ineffective in treating ADHD.
Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 2010
Ethnicity is reported to be an important, but often ignored factor in psychopharmacology. 1 Clini... more Ethnicity is reported to be an important, but often ignored factor in psychopharmacology. 1 Clinical observations and survey findings have repeatedly suggested the existence of dramatic cross-ethnic and cross-national differences in the dose requirement and side-effect profiles of various psychotropic and nonpsychotropic medications. The United States is becoming more diverse, ethnically and culturally. This process is happening primarily through immigration and also to some extent from differential birth rates of various ethnic groups. More than one-third of today's Americans are ethnic minorities. Currently, Hispanics and African Americans each make up about 15% of the population. It is anticipated that individuals of Western European ancestry will become less than a majority in 2050. 3,4 Thus, clinicians increasingly need to understand the role of ethnicity, culture, and spirituality when diagnosing and providing psychiatric care to diverse populations. Cross-cultural psychopharmacology represents an Dr William Lawson disclosed he has grant/research support from Pfizer and AstraZeneca and he is a consultant for Reckitt Benckiser. Drs Lake, Malik, and Joshi have nothing to disclose.
BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2012
The causes of mental illness remain obscure in spite of rapid progress in the neurosciences. This... more The causes of mental illness remain obscure in spite of rapid progress in the neurosciences. This is due in part to the fact that contemporary biomedical psychiatry rests on philosophically and scientifically ambiguous ground. In Western medicine paradigms , theories from physics, chemistry, and biology form the basis of an explanatory model of illness, including mental illness. Symptoms are conceptualized as subjective descriptions of effects caused by factors characterized in empirical terms. Conventional biomedicine asserts that all causes of illness, and by extension, mechanisms of action underlying legitimate treatment approaches, rest on biological processes that can be described in the reductionist language of Western science. However , in contemporary Western psychiatry, there is no single adequate explanatory model of the causes of mental illness. What remains are competing psychodynamic, genetic, endocri-nologic, and neurobiological models of symptom formation reflecting disparate ideological positions and diverse clinical training backgrounds of mental health professionals. There is no unifying theory in psychiatry because no single explanatory model has been confirmed as more valid than any other. I hypothesize in this article that the synthesis of ideas and clinical approaches from Western biomedicine and non-Western systems of medicine based on understandings of human consciousness , the neurosciences, complexity theory, and quantum field theory, will lead to rapid evolution of conventional Western biomedical psychiatry toward truly integrative mental health-care. The result will be the emergence of an integrative mental healthcare model that will more adequately address the disparate causes, conditions, and meanings of symptoms combining mul-timodal approaches from Western biomedicine and non-Western systems of medicine.
The near-death experience (NDE) as an inherited predisposition: possible genetic, epigenetic and symbolic mechanisms, 2019
The argument in overview The paper is divided into four parts. In Part I, I review principle NDE ... more The argument in overview The paper is divided into four parts. In Part I, I review principle NDE models, important recent research findings and limitations of NDE research I remark on the absence of consensus on an explanatory model of NDEs. Part II begins with an overview of NDE evolutionary thinking up until now. I define an NDE predisposition as a specialized kind of higher cognitive trait and argue that this predisposition probably originated from a pre-adaptation that permitted early hominins to have self-reflective awareness and experience specialized states of consciousness involving complex mental imagery ensuring flexible adaptive responses to unpredictable or life-threatening situations. I argue that a model of evolutionary dynamics underlying an NDE predisposition must be contextualized in a more general theory that views body-brain-environment as a dynamic complex system influenced by biological, psychological and symbolic processes. I describe evolutionary scenarios that may have led to the origin and persistence of an NDE predisposition in populations through direct, indirect or neutral selection involving both biological and nonbiological inheritance mechanisms. Specifically, I examine the evolutionary dynamics of an NDE predisposition from the perspectives of multi-factorial fitness landscapes, the neuronal replicator hypothesis, socio-cultural, behavioral and symbolic inheritance systems. I contrast NDEs reported in the context of life-threatening situations to phenomenologically similar experiences that frequently take place in non-life-threatening contexts such as dreams and in trance. I examine claims of spiritual and psychological changes following both pleasant and frightening NDEs in the context of different evolutionary scenarios. In Part III I discuss possible neural mechanisms underlying evolutionary dynamics of an NDE predisposition. Topics covered include heritable modules that solve problems related to survival , implications of functional integration of the limbic system and neocortex, the concept of brain-to-brain replication of semantic information as a pre-adaptation required for socio-cultural transmission of NDE narratives as memes, and the possible roles of epigenetic mechanisms in shaping the inheritance and transmission of an NDE predisposition. In Part IV I critique the various evolutionary scenarios discussed in the paper and argue that an NDE predisposition probably originated and persists through the operation of multi-factorial biological, social and symbolic processes that shape inheritance. I argue that an NDE predisposition could have resulted from direct or indirect selection or both direct and indirect selection depending on factors that shape evolutionary dynamics of different populations at different times. Finally, I make recommendations for improvements in methodology in near-death research broadly, and propose field studies that may clarify the relative contributions of genetic, epigenetic and social mechanisms influencing the evolutionary dynamics of an NDE predisposition. Part I: background Principle NDE models and recent research
Journal of Nonlocality, Jun 26, 2014
In spite of millennia of introspection, research and debate, there is still no compelling evidenc... more In spite of millennia of introspection, research and debate, there is still no compelling evidence for any single model of consciousness . Nor is there agreement on how to define consciousness, what constitutes a rigorous model of consciousness, and what research methods are most appropriate or productive when investigating consciousness. Current science relies on biological models of brain function as metaphors for describing what consciousness does and cannot confirm postulated causal relationships between discrete functional brain states and specific characteristics or subjective "states" of consciousness. The absence of a strong conceptual framework for thinking about consciousness, together with intrinsic limitations of contemporary research methods and technologies, have resulted in numerous un-testable hypotheses concerning the general nature of consciousness and a paralyzing lack of consensus on research priorities and methods , despite the fact that "mind" and "brain" have supplanted genetics as the next great scientific challenge for the international community -see the Human Brain Project in the EU and the BRAIN Initiative in the US (http://www.nih.gov/science/brain).
EEG biofeedback and Quantitative EEG (QEEG) are gradually emerging into mainstream psychiatry and... more EEG biofeedback and Quantitative EEG (QEEG) are gradually emerging into mainstream psychiatry and medicine as promising diagnostic and treatment approaches in Western Europe and North America. In the U.S. two professional societies are devoted to training and research in both approaches. ii Current research shows that QEEG can be a useful adjunct in the assessment of a variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders, and EEG biofeedback provides a useful therapy for a number of common disorders. Both EEG and QEEG represent truly complementary therapies, based on a targeted re-regulation of cortical and sub-cortical electrical rhythms not addressed by mainstream medical therapies.
Alternative therapies in health and medicine
Integrative approaches will lead to more accurate and different understandings of mental illness.... more Integrative approaches will lead to more accurate and different understandings of mental illness. Beneficial responses to complementary and alternative therapies provide important clues about the phenomenal nature of the human body in space-time and disparate biological, informational, and energetic factors associated with normal and abnormal psychological functioning. The conceptual framework of contemporary Western psychiatry includes multiple theoretical viewpoints, and there is no single best explanatory model of mental illness. Future theories of mental illness causation will not depend exclusively on empirical verification of strictly biological processes but will take into account both classically described biological processes and non-classical models, including complexity theory, resulting in more complete explanations of the characteristics and causes of symptoms and mechanisms of action that result in beneficial responses to treatments. Part 1 of this article examines the...
Environmental monitoring and assessment, 2002
Stable nitrogen isotope ratios (delta15N) of freshwater mussels from a series of lakes and ponds ... more Stable nitrogen isotope ratios (delta15N) of freshwater mussels from a series of lakes and ponds were related to watershed land use characteristics to assess their utility in determining the source of nitrogen inputs to inland water bodies. Nitrogen isotope ratios measured in freshwater mussels from 19 lakes and ponds in Rhode Island, U.S.A., ranged from 4.9-12.6 per thousand and were found to significantly correlate with the fraction of residential development in 100 and 200 m buffer zones around the ponds. Mussel delta15N values in 12 of the 19 ponds also showed significant correlation with average dissolved nitrate concentrations, which ranged from 23-327 microg L(-1). These observations, in light of previous studies which link elevated delta15N values of nitrogen derived from septic wastewater with those seen in biota, suggest that mussel isotope ratios may reflect nitrogen source in freshwater ecosystems. We followed an iterative approach using multiple regression analysis to a...
The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 2010
The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 2006
The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 2005
This study, using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technology, demonstrated that dist... more This study, using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technology, demonstrated that distant intentionality (DI), defined as sending thoughts at a distance, is correlated with an activation of certain brain functions in the recipients. Eleven healers who espoused some form for connecting or healing at a distance were recruited from the island of Hawaii. Each healer selected a person with whom they felt a special connection as a recipient for DI. The recipient was placed in the MRI scanner and isolated from all forms of sensory contact from the healer. The healers sent forms of DI that related to their own healing practices at random 2-minute intervals that were unknown to the recipient. Significant differences between experimental (send) and control (no send) procedures were found (p ϭ 0.000127). Areas activated during the experimental procedures included the anterior and middle cingulate area, precuneus, and frontal area. It was concluded that instructions to a healer to make an intentional connection with a sensory isolated person can be correlated to changes in brain function of that individual.
EXPLORE: The Journal of Science and Healing, 2012
This paper provides an overview of the rapidly evolving paradigm of "Integrative Mental Health (I... more This paper provides an overview of the rapidly evolving paradigm of "Integrative Mental Health (IMH)." The paradigm of contemporary biomedical psychiatry and its contrast to nonallopathic systems of medicine is initially reviewed, followed by an exploration of the emerging paradigm of IMH, which aims to reconcile the bio-psycho-socio-spiritual model with evidencebased methods from traditional healing practices. IMH is rapidly transforming conventional understandings of mental illness and has significant positive implications for the day-to-day practice of mental health care. IMH incorporates mainstream interventions such as pharmacologic treatments, psychotherapy, and psychosocial interventions, as well as alternative therapies such as acupuncture, herbal and nutritional medicine, dietary modification, meditation, etc. Two recent international conferences in Europe and the United States show that interest in integrative mental health care is growing rapidly. In response, the International Network of Integrative Mental Health (INIMH: www.INIMH. org) was established in 2010 with the objective of creating an international network of clinicians, researchers, and public health advocates to advance a global agenda for research, education, and clinical practice of evidence-based integrative mental health care. The paper concludes with a discussion of emerging opportunities for research in IMH, and an exploration of potential clinical applications of integrative mental health care.
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 1991
Current environmental models use organism lipid concentrations to estimate maximum pollutant bioa... more Current environmental models use organism lipid concentrations to estimate maximum pollutant bioaccumulation potentials. This collaborative study has shown that significantly different lipid concentrations (3.5~) are found when using common, but different, extraction solvents and methods. Based on these variable lipid values, models that estimate tissue pollutant concentrations normalized to lipid will give significantly different bioaccumulation estimates. To reduce that variability, a standard lipid method needs to be developed or adopted.
Most currently used psychotropic agents have limited efficacy, significant side-effect and toxici... more Most currently used psychotropic agents have limited efficacy, significant side-effect and toxicity problems, and are unavailable to approximately 80% of the World"s population. The development of efficacious and safe psychotropic medications based on naturally occurring substances used in non-allopathic healing traditions would represent a significant contribution to global mental health care. Rigorous empirical validation of indigenous treatments for neuopsychiatric symptoms
Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 2011
Overview: Complementary and Alternative Medicines (CAMs) are frequently given to children and ado... more Overview: Complementary and Alternative Medicines (CAMs) are frequently given to children and adolescents for reputed benefits in the treatment of hyperkinetic and concentration disorders such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). In such vulnerable populations high quality evidence is required to support such claims. Aims: The aim of the paper is to assess the current evidence of herbal and nutritional interventions for ADHD using a systematic search of clinical trials meeting an acceptable standard of evidence. Methods: PubMed, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library and CINAHL were searched up to May 26th, 2011 for randomised, controlled clinical trials using CAM products as interventions to treat ADHD. A quality analysis using a purpose-designed scale, and an estimation of effect sizes (Cohen's d) where data were available, were also calculated. Results: The review revealed that 16 studies met inclusion criteria, with predominant evidentiary support found for zinc, iron, Pinus marinus (French maritime pine bark), and a Chinese herbal formula (Ningdong); and mixed (mainly inconclusive) evidence for omega-3, and L-acetyl carnitine. Current data suggest that Ginkgo biloba (ginkgo), and Hypercium perforatum (St. John's wort) are ineffective in treating ADHD.
Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 2010
Ethnicity is reported to be an important, but often ignored factor in psychopharmacology. 1 Clini... more Ethnicity is reported to be an important, but often ignored factor in psychopharmacology. 1 Clinical observations and survey findings have repeatedly suggested the existence of dramatic cross-ethnic and cross-national differences in the dose requirement and side-effect profiles of various psychotropic and nonpsychotropic medications. The United States is becoming more diverse, ethnically and culturally. This process is happening primarily through immigration and also to some extent from differential birth rates of various ethnic groups. More than one-third of today's Americans are ethnic minorities. Currently, Hispanics and African Americans each make up about 15% of the population. It is anticipated that individuals of Western European ancestry will become less than a majority in 2050. 3,4 Thus, clinicians increasingly need to understand the role of ethnicity, culture, and spirituality when diagnosing and providing psychiatric care to diverse populations. Cross-cultural psychopharmacology represents an Dr William Lawson disclosed he has grant/research support from Pfizer and AstraZeneca and he is a consultant for Reckitt Benckiser. Drs Lake, Malik, and Joshi have nothing to disclose.
BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2012
The causes of mental illness remain obscure in spite of rapid progress in the neurosciences. This... more The causes of mental illness remain obscure in spite of rapid progress in the neurosciences. This is due in part to the fact that contemporary biomedical psychiatry rests on philosophically and scientifically ambiguous ground. In Western medicine paradigms , theories from physics, chemistry, and biology form the basis of an explanatory model of illness, including mental illness. Symptoms are conceptualized as subjective descriptions of effects caused by factors characterized in empirical terms. Conventional biomedicine asserts that all causes of illness, and by extension, mechanisms of action underlying legitimate treatment approaches, rest on biological processes that can be described in the reductionist language of Western science. However , in contemporary Western psychiatry, there is no single adequate explanatory model of the causes of mental illness. What remains are competing psychodynamic, genetic, endocri-nologic, and neurobiological models of symptom formation reflecting disparate ideological positions and diverse clinical training backgrounds of mental health professionals. There is no unifying theory in psychiatry because no single explanatory model has been confirmed as more valid than any other. I hypothesize in this article that the synthesis of ideas and clinical approaches from Western biomedicine and non-Western systems of medicine based on understandings of human consciousness , the neurosciences, complexity theory, and quantum field theory, will lead to rapid evolution of conventional Western biomedical psychiatry toward truly integrative mental health-care. The result will be the emergence of an integrative mental healthcare model that will more adequately address the disparate causes, conditions, and meanings of symptoms combining mul-timodal approaches from Western biomedicine and non-Western systems of medicine.