Kamal Pant - Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by Kamal Pant
Nanocatalysts: Green Fuel and Chemical Production
Dekker Encyclopedia of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Third Edition, 2014
Insights into the metal salt catalyzed ethyl levulinate synthesis from biorenewable feedstocks
Catalysis Today, 2016
Effect of heating/reheating of fats/oils, as used by Asian Indians, on trans fatty acid formation
Food Chemistry, 2016
Heating/frying and reuse of edible fats/oils induces chemical changes such as formation of trans ... more Heating/frying and reuse of edible fats/oils induces chemical changes such as formation of trans fatty acids (TFAs). The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of heating/frying on formation of TFAs in fats/oils. Using gas chromatography with flame ionisation detector, TFA was estimated in six commonly used fat/oils in India (refined soybean oil, groundnut oil, olive oil, rapeseed oil, clarified butter, partially hydrogenated vegetable oil), before and after subjecting them to heating/frying at 180°C and 220°C. All six fats/oils subjected to heating/frying demonstrated an increase in TFAs (p<0.001), saturated fatty acids (p<0.001) and decrease in cis-unsaturated fatty acids (p<0.001). The absolute increase in TFA content of edible oils (after subjecting to heating/reheating) ranged between 2.30±0.89g/100g and 4.5±1.43g/100g; amongst edible fats it ranged between 2.60±0.38g/100g and 5.96±1.94g/100g. There were no significant differences between the two treatment groups (heating and frying; p=0.892). Considering the undesirable health effects of TFA, appropriate guidelines for heating/re-frying of edible fats/oils by Asian Indians should be devised.
Greener approach for the extraction of copper metal from electronic waste
Waste Management, 2015
Technology innovations resulted into a major move from agricultural to industrial economy in last... more Technology innovations resulted into a major move from agricultural to industrial economy in last few decades. Consequently, generation of waste electronic and electrical equipments (WEEE) has been increased at a significant rate. WEEE contain large amount of precious and heavy metals and therefore, can be considered a potential secondary resource to overcome the scarcity of metals. Also, presence of these metals may affect the ecosystem due to lack of adequate management of WEEE. Building upon our previous experimental investigations for metal extraction from spent catalyst, present study explores the concept of green technology for WEEE management. Efforts have been made to recover base metal from a printed circuit board using eco-friendly chelation technology and results were compared with the conventional acid leaching method. 83.8% recovery of copper metal was achieved using chelation technology whereas only 27% could be recovered using acid leaching method in absence of any oxidant at optimum reaction conditions. Various characterization studies (energy dispersive X-ray analysis, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, inductive coupled plasma spectrophotometry) of Printed Circuit Board (PCB) and residues were performed for qualitative and quantitative analysis of samples. Significant metal extraction, more than 96% recovery of chelating agent, recycling of reactant in next chelation cycle and nearly zero discharge to the environment are the major advantages of the proposed green process which articulate the transcendency of chelation technology over other conventional approaches. Kinetic investigation suggests diffusion controlled process as the rate determining step for the chelate assisted recovery of copper from WEEE with activation energy of 22kJ/mol.
Experimental and Statistical Optimization of Chelant Assisted Extraction of Heavy Metals From Bimetallic Spent Catalyst
Conceptual mechanism and kinetic studies of chelating agent assisted metal extraction process from spent catalyst
Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 2015
ABSTRACT Metal extraction from spent catalysts using chelation technology is an acknowledged conc... more ABSTRACT Metal extraction from spent catalysts using chelation technology is an acknowledged concept, however an underlying mechanism and kinetics associated with the process is still inexplicable. Therefore, efforts have been made to propose a generalized framework for extraction process and rate determining step was identified. Various empirical models were analyzed to choose the optimum one regarding their relative accuracy of fitting experimental data. Peleg model was considered the best fitted model with lowest root mean square error (±2.33%) and highest linear regression coefficient (0.9937). Thermodynamic analysis suggests activation energy of 24.8kJ/mol and 12.07kJ/mol for cobalt and molybdenum respectively.
Development of green technology for extraction of nickel from spent catalyst and its optimization using response surface methodology
Green Processing and Synthesis, 2013
Development and Performance Evaluation of Alginate-Capped Amphotericin B Lipid Nanoconstructs Against Visceral Leishmaniasis
Journal of Biomedical Nanotechnology, 2011
The present study was aimed to assess the improvement of existing treatment regimens of Amphoteri... more The present study was aimed to assess the improvement of existing treatment regimens of Amphotericin B nanoconstrcuts which synergises with alginate for immunostimulation against visceral leishmaniasis. The particle size of Lip-nano (Plain AmB nanoconstructs) and Alg-Lip-nano (alginate capped Lip-nano) was 108.3 +/- 4.3 and 134.2 +/- 5.1 while zeta potential was (+) 28.4 +/- 3.3 and (-) 19.8 +/- 2.1 respectively. Percentage of parasite inhibition (intramacrophagic amastigotes) at 0.1 microg/ml conc. of AmB in case of Alg-Lip-nano (58%) was significantly higher (P = 0.05) compared to Lip-nano (48%). This supports that alginate coating over particles can activate macrophages to synergistically act with AmB in effective killing of parasite. This observation generates interest that immunotherapy with chemotherapeutic activity of AmB can effectively increase cure rate in visceral leishmaniasis.
Pyrolysis of n-heptane: kinetics and modeling
Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 1996
The kinetics and product distribution during the pyrolysis of n-heptane have been investigated in... more The kinetics and product distribution during the pyrolysis of n-heptane have been investigated in the temperature range 953–1023 K at atmospheric pressure, with steam as the inert diluent. The overall n-heptane decomposition can be represented by a first-order reaction with a frequency factor of 6.02 × 1013s−1 and an activation energy of 250.7 kJ mol−1. The experimental product yields could
International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 2012
The current study was aimed at using immobilized mercury bioaccumulating Bacillus cereus cells fo... more The current study was aimed at using immobilized mercury bioaccumulating Bacillus cereus cells for the remediation of mercury from synthetic effluent. The remediation process was attempted under different experimental conditions. The different adsorption kinetics, equilibria, and thermodynamics were also investigated in an attempt to develop an effective and better biosorbent for mercury remediation. The maximum biosorption capacity of the immobilized cells was found to be 104.1 mg g À1. The mean free energy value, as evaluated using the DubinineRadushkevich (DeR) model, was 15.8 kJ mol À1. This indicates that the mercury remediation process under investigation was chemically more favorable than the physical adsorption process. The remediation process was seen to follow pseudo-second-order kinetics. The apparent free energy change showed that the biosorption process of mercury was thermodynamically feasible and spontaneous in nature. The feasibility of using immobilized cells in a continuous column for effective mercury remediation was also attempted. The breakthrough point was obtained after 11 h of continuous flow. Thus, according to the study, the alginate immobilized B. cereus cells constitute a prospective mercury remediation system, which can effectively be used in mercury contaminated aqueous environment.
Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2013
Catalytic Pyrolysis of n -Heptane: Kinetics and Modeling
Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 1997
... Catalytic Pyrolysis of n-Heptane: Kinetics and Modeling. ...
Chemical Engineering Journal, 2002
Steam pyrolysis of n-heptane has been studied over different calcium aluminates and potassium imp... more Steam pyrolysis of n-heptane has been studied over different calcium aluminates and potassium impregnated calcium aluminate in a fixed bed reactor at atmospheric pressure. Various calcium aluminate catalysts were prepared by changing the precursor salt for obtaining CaO, which was subsequently used with Al 2 O 3 for catalyst preparation. Depending on the source of CaO, the catalytic properties such as X-ray diffraction patterns, surface area, weight loss during reduction and the amount of CO 2 chemisorbed (basicity) were different. Compared to the unpromoted catalysts, K 2 CO 3 impregnated catalyst significantly reduced the coke deposited on the catalyst, but only had marginal effect on the products selectivities. The activation energy for the coke gasification reaction was 140 kJ/mol.
Chemical Engineering Journal, 1998
Steam pyrolysis of methylcyclohexane has been studied over potassium carbonate impregnated calciu... more Steam pyrolysis of methylcyclohexane has been studied over potassium carbonate impregnated calcium aluminate catalyst in a fixed bed reactor at atmospheric pressure in the temperature range of 973-l 073 K. Compared to noncatalytic pyrolysis, the conversion was significantly higher but the hydrocarbon product selectivities were not affected in the presence of the catalyst. Incorporation of K,CO, in the catalyst significantly reduced the coke deposited on the catalyst. The overall catalytic pyrolysis reaction could be represented by a first-order reaction with a preexponential factor of I. 1 X 10' m3/(kg s) and an activation energy of 106.9 kJ/mol. The experimental product yields could be satisfactorily modeled by use of a molecular reaction scheme, consisting of a first-order primary reaction and twenty four secondary reactions among the primary products.
Noncatalytic and catalytic pyrolysis of toluene
The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 1999
Page 1. Noncatalytic and Catalytic Pyrolysis of Toluene KAMAL K. PANT and DEEPAK KUNZRP Departmen... more Page 1. Noncatalytic and Catalytic Pyrolysis of Toluene KAMAL K. PANT and DEEPAK KUNZRP Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur - 208016, India Noncatalytic and catalytic pyrolysis ...
Recovery of Cobalt from Spent Catalyst Using Edta as a Chelating Agent
Wednesday, November 7, 2007 509ap. Recovery of Cobalt from Spent Catalyst Using Edta as a Chelati... more Wednesday, November 7, 2007 509ap. Recovery of Cobalt from Spent Catalyst Using Edta as a Chelating Agent. Bina Singh 1 , Kamal Kishore Pant 2 , V. V Krishnan 2 , and KDP Nigam 2 . (1) Department of Chemical Engineering ...
Potassium-containing calcium aluminate catalysts for pyrolysis of n-heptane
Applied Catalysis A: General, 1997
The effectiveness of potassium promoted calcium aluminate to catalyze the steam pyrolysis of n-he... more The effectiveness of potassium promoted calcium aluminate to catalyze the steam pyrolysis of n-heptane has been investigated at 1023 K and atmospheric pressure. Various amounts of potassium were incorporated on calcium aluminate (12CaO---7Al 2 O 3 ) by three different methods. ...
Catalytic oxidative steam reforming of bio-ethanol for hydrogen production over Rh promoted Ni/CeO2–ZrO2 catalyst
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2015
ABSTRACT Catalytic steam reforming of bio-ethanol in presence of oxygen for hydrogen production w... more ABSTRACT Catalytic steam reforming of bio-ethanol in presence of oxygen for hydrogen production was studied over Ni/CeO2–ZrO2 and Rh–Ni/CeO2–ZrO2 catalysts. The catalysts were prepared by an impregnation-co-precipitation method and characterized by various characterization techniques. Characterization results revealed that addition of ZrO2 improves the oxygen storage capacity of CeO2 which improves catalytic activity. The effects of temperature, ethanol/water/oxygen molar ratio, and space time on ethanol conversion and product selectivities were investigated using a tubular fixed bed reactor at atmospheric pressure. Complete ethanol conversion was achieved at 600 °C with a maximum hydrogen yield of 4.6 mol/mol on the 1%Rh–30%Ni/CeO2–ZrO2 catalyst. Ethanol conversion and H2 selectivity were increased with increasing contact time, while CO and CH4 selectivity decreased. Investigation revealed Rh promoted catalyst exhibited better catalytic activity than 30%Ni/CeO2–ZrO2 catalyst for oxidative steam reforming of ethanol, indicating that addition of Rh improved the catalytic activity significantly by promoting water gas shift reaction.
Carbon Dioxide Reforming of Methane over K, Ce and Mn Promoted Ni/Al 2 O 3 Catalysts: Catalyst Characterization and Activity
ABSTRACT
A field study and continuous removal of fluoride in a packed column
The synthetic water performance in the light of fluoride removal was studied and compared with th... more The synthetic water performance in the light of fluoride removal was studied and compared with the actual fluoride contaminated water of different selected water collection stations. An indegeneous activated alumina was used as adsorbent. The performance of the column for fluoride contaminated water was about 94% fluoride reduction at a pH value of 7.0 and the presence of total dissolved solids (T.D.S.). 2114 mg/L in subsoil water decreased the fluoride removal by 5%.
Nanocatalysts: Green Fuel and Chemical Production
Dekker Encyclopedia of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Third Edition, 2014
Insights into the metal salt catalyzed ethyl levulinate synthesis from biorenewable feedstocks
Catalysis Today, 2016
Effect of heating/reheating of fats/oils, as used by Asian Indians, on trans fatty acid formation
Food Chemistry, 2016
Heating/frying and reuse of edible fats/oils induces chemical changes such as formation of trans ... more Heating/frying and reuse of edible fats/oils induces chemical changes such as formation of trans fatty acids (TFAs). The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of heating/frying on formation of TFAs in fats/oils. Using gas chromatography with flame ionisation detector, TFA was estimated in six commonly used fat/oils in India (refined soybean oil, groundnut oil, olive oil, rapeseed oil, clarified butter, partially hydrogenated vegetable oil), before and after subjecting them to heating/frying at 180°C and 220°C. All six fats/oils subjected to heating/frying demonstrated an increase in TFAs (p<0.001), saturated fatty acids (p<0.001) and decrease in cis-unsaturated fatty acids (p<0.001). The absolute increase in TFA content of edible oils (after subjecting to heating/reheating) ranged between 2.30±0.89g/100g and 4.5±1.43g/100g; amongst edible fats it ranged between 2.60±0.38g/100g and 5.96±1.94g/100g. There were no significant differences between the two treatment groups (heating and frying; p=0.892). Considering the undesirable health effects of TFA, appropriate guidelines for heating/re-frying of edible fats/oils by Asian Indians should be devised.
Greener approach for the extraction of copper metal from electronic waste
Waste Management, 2015
Technology innovations resulted into a major move from agricultural to industrial economy in last... more Technology innovations resulted into a major move from agricultural to industrial economy in last few decades. Consequently, generation of waste electronic and electrical equipments (WEEE) has been increased at a significant rate. WEEE contain large amount of precious and heavy metals and therefore, can be considered a potential secondary resource to overcome the scarcity of metals. Also, presence of these metals may affect the ecosystem due to lack of adequate management of WEEE. Building upon our previous experimental investigations for metal extraction from spent catalyst, present study explores the concept of green technology for WEEE management. Efforts have been made to recover base metal from a printed circuit board using eco-friendly chelation technology and results were compared with the conventional acid leaching method. 83.8% recovery of copper metal was achieved using chelation technology whereas only 27% could be recovered using acid leaching method in absence of any oxidant at optimum reaction conditions. Various characterization studies (energy dispersive X-ray analysis, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, inductive coupled plasma spectrophotometry) of Printed Circuit Board (PCB) and residues were performed for qualitative and quantitative analysis of samples. Significant metal extraction, more than 96% recovery of chelating agent, recycling of reactant in next chelation cycle and nearly zero discharge to the environment are the major advantages of the proposed green process which articulate the transcendency of chelation technology over other conventional approaches. Kinetic investigation suggests diffusion controlled process as the rate determining step for the chelate assisted recovery of copper from WEEE with activation energy of 22kJ/mol.
Experimental and Statistical Optimization of Chelant Assisted Extraction of Heavy Metals From Bimetallic Spent Catalyst
Conceptual mechanism and kinetic studies of chelating agent assisted metal extraction process from spent catalyst
Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 2015
ABSTRACT Metal extraction from spent catalysts using chelation technology is an acknowledged conc... more ABSTRACT Metal extraction from spent catalysts using chelation technology is an acknowledged concept, however an underlying mechanism and kinetics associated with the process is still inexplicable. Therefore, efforts have been made to propose a generalized framework for extraction process and rate determining step was identified. Various empirical models were analyzed to choose the optimum one regarding their relative accuracy of fitting experimental data. Peleg model was considered the best fitted model with lowest root mean square error (±2.33%) and highest linear regression coefficient (0.9937). Thermodynamic analysis suggests activation energy of 24.8kJ/mol and 12.07kJ/mol for cobalt and molybdenum respectively.
Development of green technology for extraction of nickel from spent catalyst and its optimization using response surface methodology
Green Processing and Synthesis, 2013
Development and Performance Evaluation of Alginate-Capped Amphotericin B Lipid Nanoconstructs Against Visceral Leishmaniasis
Journal of Biomedical Nanotechnology, 2011
The present study was aimed to assess the improvement of existing treatment regimens of Amphoteri... more The present study was aimed to assess the improvement of existing treatment regimens of Amphotericin B nanoconstrcuts which synergises with alginate for immunostimulation against visceral leishmaniasis. The particle size of Lip-nano (Plain AmB nanoconstructs) and Alg-Lip-nano (alginate capped Lip-nano) was 108.3 +/- 4.3 and 134.2 +/- 5.1 while zeta potential was (+) 28.4 +/- 3.3 and (-) 19.8 +/- 2.1 respectively. Percentage of parasite inhibition (intramacrophagic amastigotes) at 0.1 microg/ml conc. of AmB in case of Alg-Lip-nano (58%) was significantly higher (P = 0.05) compared to Lip-nano (48%). This supports that alginate coating over particles can activate macrophages to synergistically act with AmB in effective killing of parasite. This observation generates interest that immunotherapy with chemotherapeutic activity of AmB can effectively increase cure rate in visceral leishmaniasis.
Pyrolysis of n-heptane: kinetics and modeling
Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 1996
The kinetics and product distribution during the pyrolysis of n-heptane have been investigated in... more The kinetics and product distribution during the pyrolysis of n-heptane have been investigated in the temperature range 953–1023 K at atmospheric pressure, with steam as the inert diluent. The overall n-heptane decomposition can be represented by a first-order reaction with a frequency factor of 6.02 × 1013s−1 and an activation energy of 250.7 kJ mol−1. The experimental product yields could
International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 2012
The current study was aimed at using immobilized mercury bioaccumulating Bacillus cereus cells fo... more The current study was aimed at using immobilized mercury bioaccumulating Bacillus cereus cells for the remediation of mercury from synthetic effluent. The remediation process was attempted under different experimental conditions. The different adsorption kinetics, equilibria, and thermodynamics were also investigated in an attempt to develop an effective and better biosorbent for mercury remediation. The maximum biosorption capacity of the immobilized cells was found to be 104.1 mg g À1. The mean free energy value, as evaluated using the DubinineRadushkevich (DeR) model, was 15.8 kJ mol À1. This indicates that the mercury remediation process under investigation was chemically more favorable than the physical adsorption process. The remediation process was seen to follow pseudo-second-order kinetics. The apparent free energy change showed that the biosorption process of mercury was thermodynamically feasible and spontaneous in nature. The feasibility of using immobilized cells in a continuous column for effective mercury remediation was also attempted. The breakthrough point was obtained after 11 h of continuous flow. Thus, according to the study, the alginate immobilized B. cereus cells constitute a prospective mercury remediation system, which can effectively be used in mercury contaminated aqueous environment.
Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 2013
Catalytic Pyrolysis of n -Heptane: Kinetics and Modeling
Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 1997
... Catalytic Pyrolysis of n-Heptane: Kinetics and Modeling. ...
Chemical Engineering Journal, 2002
Steam pyrolysis of n-heptane has been studied over different calcium aluminates and potassium imp... more Steam pyrolysis of n-heptane has been studied over different calcium aluminates and potassium impregnated calcium aluminate in a fixed bed reactor at atmospheric pressure. Various calcium aluminate catalysts were prepared by changing the precursor salt for obtaining CaO, which was subsequently used with Al 2 O 3 for catalyst preparation. Depending on the source of CaO, the catalytic properties such as X-ray diffraction patterns, surface area, weight loss during reduction and the amount of CO 2 chemisorbed (basicity) were different. Compared to the unpromoted catalysts, K 2 CO 3 impregnated catalyst significantly reduced the coke deposited on the catalyst, but only had marginal effect on the products selectivities. The activation energy for the coke gasification reaction was 140 kJ/mol.
Chemical Engineering Journal, 1998
Steam pyrolysis of methylcyclohexane has been studied over potassium carbonate impregnated calciu... more Steam pyrolysis of methylcyclohexane has been studied over potassium carbonate impregnated calcium aluminate catalyst in a fixed bed reactor at atmospheric pressure in the temperature range of 973-l 073 K. Compared to noncatalytic pyrolysis, the conversion was significantly higher but the hydrocarbon product selectivities were not affected in the presence of the catalyst. Incorporation of K,CO, in the catalyst significantly reduced the coke deposited on the catalyst. The overall catalytic pyrolysis reaction could be represented by a first-order reaction with a preexponential factor of I. 1 X 10' m3/(kg s) and an activation energy of 106.9 kJ/mol. The experimental product yields could be satisfactorily modeled by use of a molecular reaction scheme, consisting of a first-order primary reaction and twenty four secondary reactions among the primary products.
Noncatalytic and catalytic pyrolysis of toluene
The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 1999
Page 1. Noncatalytic and Catalytic Pyrolysis of Toluene KAMAL K. PANT and DEEPAK KUNZRP Departmen... more Page 1. Noncatalytic and Catalytic Pyrolysis of Toluene KAMAL K. PANT and DEEPAK KUNZRP Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur - 208016, India Noncatalytic and catalytic pyrolysis ...
Recovery of Cobalt from Spent Catalyst Using Edta as a Chelating Agent
Wednesday, November 7, 2007 509ap. Recovery of Cobalt from Spent Catalyst Using Edta as a Chelati... more Wednesday, November 7, 2007 509ap. Recovery of Cobalt from Spent Catalyst Using Edta as a Chelating Agent. Bina Singh 1 , Kamal Kishore Pant 2 , V. V Krishnan 2 , and KDP Nigam 2 . (1) Department of Chemical Engineering ...
Potassium-containing calcium aluminate catalysts for pyrolysis of n-heptane
Applied Catalysis A: General, 1997
The effectiveness of potassium promoted calcium aluminate to catalyze the steam pyrolysis of n-he... more The effectiveness of potassium promoted calcium aluminate to catalyze the steam pyrolysis of n-heptane has been investigated at 1023 K and atmospheric pressure. Various amounts of potassium were incorporated on calcium aluminate (12CaO---7Al 2 O 3 ) by three different methods. ...
Catalytic oxidative steam reforming of bio-ethanol for hydrogen production over Rh promoted Ni/CeO2–ZrO2 catalyst
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2015
ABSTRACT Catalytic steam reforming of bio-ethanol in presence of oxygen for hydrogen production w... more ABSTRACT Catalytic steam reforming of bio-ethanol in presence of oxygen for hydrogen production was studied over Ni/CeO2–ZrO2 and Rh–Ni/CeO2–ZrO2 catalysts. The catalysts were prepared by an impregnation-co-precipitation method and characterized by various characterization techniques. Characterization results revealed that addition of ZrO2 improves the oxygen storage capacity of CeO2 which improves catalytic activity. The effects of temperature, ethanol/water/oxygen molar ratio, and space time on ethanol conversion and product selectivities were investigated using a tubular fixed bed reactor at atmospheric pressure. Complete ethanol conversion was achieved at 600 °C with a maximum hydrogen yield of 4.6 mol/mol on the 1%Rh–30%Ni/CeO2–ZrO2 catalyst. Ethanol conversion and H2 selectivity were increased with increasing contact time, while CO and CH4 selectivity decreased. Investigation revealed Rh promoted catalyst exhibited better catalytic activity than 30%Ni/CeO2–ZrO2 catalyst for oxidative steam reforming of ethanol, indicating that addition of Rh improved the catalytic activity significantly by promoting water gas shift reaction.
Carbon Dioxide Reforming of Methane over K, Ce and Mn Promoted Ni/Al 2 O 3 Catalysts: Catalyst Characterization and Activity
ABSTRACT
A field study and continuous removal of fluoride in a packed column
The synthetic water performance in the light of fluoride removal was studied and compared with th... more The synthetic water performance in the light of fluoride removal was studied and compared with the actual fluoride contaminated water of different selected water collection stations. An indegeneous activated alumina was used as adsorbent. The performance of the column for fluoride contaminated water was about 94% fluoride reduction at a pH value of 7.0 and the presence of total dissolved solids (T.D.S.). 2114 mg/L in subsoil water decreased the fluoride removal by 5%.