Kok Fah Chong - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Kok Fah Chong

The complexity of the digital electronic circuit is due to the number of gates used per system as... more The complexity of the digital electronic circuit is due to the number of gates used per system as well as the interconnection of the gates. Diminution of the total number of gates used and interconnection in the system would reduce the cost in the design, as well as increasing the efficiency of the overall system. As a result, the higher integration level, the better and the cheaper final product produced. The conventional digital circuit design method is based on Boolean algebra. There are no specific procedure to choose the right theorem or postulate for the Boolean expression simplification and it is very impractical to design the digital circuits that have more than four variable. Karnaugh map can provide the simple minimization process for Boolean expression, but it encounters difficulties when the variable is more than four. 129 4.11 The Design 3-1 Successful Chromosome Bits on GALI 130 4.12 The K-Map Solution for Design 3-1 130 4.13 4-bit Digital Circuit Structure 135 4.14 The Control Panel of the 4-Bit ODCSD 137 4.15 The Simulation Result for Design 4-1 138 4.16 The Constraint Fitness for Design 4-1 139 4.17 The Design 4-1 Successful Chromosome Set on GALI 140 4.18 Design 4-1 Successful Chromosome Bits on GALI 142 4.19 The K-Map Solution for Design 4-1 142 4.20 5-Bit Digital Circuit Structure 142 4.21 The Control Panel of the 5-Bit ODCSD 150 4.22 The Simulation Result for Design 5-1 151 4.23 The Constraint Fitness for Design 5-1 151 xix 4.24 The Design 5-1 Successful Chromosome Set on GALI 152 4.25 Design 5-1 Successful Chromosome Bits on GALI 154 4.26 Design 5-1 by using Karnaugh Minimizer 155 4.27 6-Bit Digital Circuit Structure 158 4.28 The Control Panel of the 6-Bit ODCSD 159 4.29 The Simulation Result for Design 6-1 160 4.30 The Constraint Fitness for Design 6-1 161 4.31 he Design 6-1 Successful Chromosome Set on GALI 162 4.32 Design 6-1 Successful Chromosome Bits on GALI 165 4.33 Design 6-1 by using Karnaugh Minimizer 166 4.34 The Simulation Result for the first Circuit Designed by Mentor Graphics 172 4.35 The Simulation Result for the second Circuit Designed by Mentor Graphics 173 4.36 The Simulation Result for the first Circuit Designed by Quine McCluskey 176 4.37 The Simulation Result for the second Circuit Designed by Quine McCluskey

IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics and Frequency Control, 2011

Time-and temperature-dependent effects are critical for the operation of non-volatile memories ba... more Time-and temperature-dependent effects are critical for the operation of non-volatile memories based on ferroelectrics. In this paper, we assume a domain nucleation process of the polarization reversal and we discuss the polarization dynamics in the framework of a non-equilibrium statistical model. This approach yields analytical expressions which can be used to explain a wide range of time-and temperature-dependent effects in ferroelectrics. Domain wall velocity derived in this work is consistent with a domain wall creep behavior in ferroelectrics. In the limiting case of para-electric equilibrium, the model yields the well-known Curie law. We also present experimental P-E loops data obtained for soft ferroelectrics at various temperatures. The experimental coercive fields at various temperatures are well predicted by the coercive field formula derived in our theory.

We strongly believe the magnetism of an atom is influenced by its unique nucleus structure. Since... more We strongly believe the magnetism of an atom is influenced by its unique nucleus structure. Since different atoms have different unique nucleus structure in which these give rise to different magnetic characteristics: ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, paramagnetic, and diamagnetic.
We realize that superconductive substances have high specific heat capacities which hints that superconductive must have something to do with stockpile of stationary photons.

When the number of neutrons within a nucleus is perceived to have too many of them, it would like... more When the number of neutrons within a nucleus is perceived to have too many of them, it would likely undergo either beta emission or neutron emission to reduce the number of neutrons within the nucleus. Therefore neutrons are not completely neutral in charges otherwise having too many of them presence in a nucleus won't perceive to be a threat to its stability. Einstein's famous equation, E=mc 2 is wrong otherwise garbage also can be used to make nuclear bombs as long as it is matter or it has mass. Hydrogen bombs are more powerful than atomic bombs in which hydrogen bombs are made from plutonium-238 atoms that are derived from uranium-238 atoms. Nucleons of uranium-238 atoms are saturated with more stationary photons than the one of uranium-235 (fuel for atomic bombs) in order to squeezing slightly more number of neutrons within the nucleus because neutrons are not completely neutral in charges. Keywords: Number of neutrons, beta emission, neutron emission, plutonium-238, uranium-235, Uranium-238, stationary photons, atomic bombs, hydrogen bombs. Beta emission and Neutron emission Certain radioisotopes will likely undergo beta emission to convert a neutron to a proton by releasing an energetic electron to the surroundings in beta emission when too many neutrons are presence within the nucleus is perceived as a threat to its stability. Therefore this hints that neutrons are not completely neutral in charges otherwise having too many of them within a nucleus won't be a threat to the stability of the nucleus itself if neutrons are completely neutral in charges. Some other radioisotopes will likely undergo neutron emission by emitting out an energetic neutron into the surroundings to reduce the number of neutrons within the nucleus in order to maintain the stability of the nucleus because it perceived to have too many neutrons within the nucleus. Again this hints that neutrons are not completely neutral at all otherwise the presence of too many of them will not perceive as a threat to the stability of the nucleus itself if they are completely neutral in charges. Hydrogen Bombs Is More Powerful Than Atomic Bombs Hydrogen bomb is more powerful than atomic bomb. Uranium-235 is the fuel to make atomic bombs 1. On the other hand, plutonium-238 is the fuel to make hydrogen bombs 2. In addition, plutonium-238 is derived from uranium-238. Why "uranium-238" is more powerful than uranium-235? Before we could answer to this question, we should agree that Einstein's famous equation, E=mc 2 is wrong otherwise garbage also can be used to make nuclear bombs as long as it is matter or it has mass. Energy and matter can't interchange one another according to Einstein's 1

All free electrons that emitted from an electron-gun of a cathode tube will converge to a single ... more All free electrons that emitted from an electron-gun of a cathode tube will converge to a single spot on a screen behind the cathode tube after interacting with a fixed external magnetic field which implies that there is only one type of electrons. On the other hand, Pauli claims that there are two types of electrons, one spin up and the other spin down. In Pauli's exclusion principle, it states that in any quantum system, no two electrons could occupy the same quantum state in believing every orbital can accommodate two electrons each with different spins. Since there is only one type of electrons, therefore this would signal the downfall of Pauli's exclusion principle, which is also the foundation of modern quantum chemistry. Contradiction between cathode tube experiment and stern-gerlach experiment In cathode tube experiment, all free electrons that emitted from an electron-gun will converge to a spot on a screen behind the cathode tube after interacting with a fixed external magnetic field, which implies that there is only one type of electrons. This discovery is contradicting with Pauli's exclusion principle, which believes that there are two types of electrons each with different spins. Precisely, Pauli claims that one of the electrons is spin up and the other is spin down, and in any quantum system, no two similar electrons can occupy the same quantum state. Therefore he believes that every orbital is filled with two electrons each with different spins. Stern-Gerlach apparatus allows atoms emerging from the aperture of an oven pass through a collimating slit and then enter an inhomogeneous magnetic field which split the beam into (2l+1) components 1. " Actually " Stern-Gerlach was trying to determine there were how many types of atoms rather than how many types of electrons. Apparently, Stern-Gerlach and quantum scientists are confusing between electrons and atoms. So the outcome of Stern-Gerlach experiment doesn't show without ambiguity that there are two types of " electrons " since what have been tested were atoms. Pauli's exclusion principle is the foundation of modern quantum chemistry. If it turned out that there is only one type of electrons, then this would bring the downfall of the entire modern quantum chemistry. Conclusion The outcome of cathode tube experiment has clearly proved that there is only one type of electrons. Precisely, every free electron that emitted out form an electron-gun of a cathode tube will converge to a spot on a screen behind the cathode tube after interacting with a fixed external magnetic field, which implies that there is only one type of electrons. On the other hand, Pauli

When the number of neutrons within a nucleus is perceived to have too many of them, it would like... more When the number of neutrons within a nucleus is perceived to have too many of them, it would likely undergo either beta emission or neutron emission to reduce the number of neutrons within the nucleus. Therefore neutrons are not completely neutral in charges otherwise having too many of them presence in a nucleus won't perceive to be a threat to its stability. Einstein's famous equation, E=mc 2 is wrong otherwise garbage also can be used to make nuclear bombs as long as it is matter or it has mass. Hydrogen bombs are more powerful than atomic bombs in which hydrogen bombs are made from plutonium-238 atoms that are derived from uranium-238 atoms. Nucleons of uranium-238 atoms are saturated with more stationary photons than the one of uranium-235 (fuel for atomic bombs) in order to squeezing slightly more number of neutrons within the nucleus because neutrons are not completely neutral in charges. Beta emission and Neutron emission Certain radioisotopes will likely undergo beta emission to convert a neutron to a proton by releasing an energetic electron to the surroundings in beta emission when too many neutrons are presence within the nucleus is perceived as a threat to its stability. Therefore this hints that neutrons are not completely neutral in charges otherwise having too many of them within a nucleus won't be a threat to the stability of the nucleus itself if neutrons are completely neutral in charges. Some other radioisotopes will likely undergo neutron emission by emitting out an energetic neutron into the surroundings to reduce the number of neutrons within the nucleus in order to maintain the stability of the nucleus because it perceived to have too many neutrons within the nucleus. Again this hints that neutrons are not completely neutral at all otherwise the presence of too many of them will not perceive as a threat to the stability of the nucleus itself if they are completely neutral in charges.

What is positron? Is positron positively charged electron? What is free electrons? Why drifting e... more What is positron? Is positron positively charged electron? What is free electrons? Why drifting electrons are not powerful enough to do work? How X-ray being produced? How microwave oven works? How radio works? What cause lightning? Is EMW wave or dissipating photons per volume per time? You will understand electrons better after reading through this article. Reading this article is an eye-opener indeed.

Book Reviews by Kok Fah Chong

The observable universe is already very vast, needless to say the entire universe. Everything wit... more The observable universe is already very vast, needless to say the entire universe. Everything within the universe is bound by the gravitational forces. In other words, every celestial body within the entire universe is mutually attracted to one another with their gravitational pulls. We even believe that light also cannot escape away from the universe where the dynamic photons of light that are heading outwardly from the center of the universe towards the edge of the universe would experience some slowdown as they move farther and farther away from the center of the universe by converting more and more of their kinetic energy to the universal gravitational potential energy. They will continue to move outwardly until the " edge " of the universe where it's the maximum size of the universe when all their kinetic energy has almost reduced to zero before they would stand still momentarily before they would implode towards the center of the universe by gradually accelerating towards the center of the universe by converting more and more of their universal gravitational potential energy back to kinetic energy again. This indirectly shows the powerful forces of the universal gravitational potential energy that photons can't even escape away from the universe. The gravitational force of the entire universe is so enormous because the total mass of the universe is humongous. The observable universe is about tens billions of light years across. Of course, the entire universe is vaster than that that is invisible even with the aid of a powerful astronomical telescope. When the entire universe has inflated to its maximum size before the imminent implosion, the velocities of all celestial bodies that are accelerating towards the center of the universe after " trillions " of light years before reaching the center of the universe could be several times the speed of light. Therefore the scene of Big Bang explosion when most celestial bodies colliding against one another near the center of the universe in tremendous velocities is beyond our imagination.

We know that free electrons are tiny magnets. Whenever a current electric is passing through a wi... more We know that free electrons are tiny magnets. Whenever a current electric is passing through a wire, the wire itself will be surrounded with a magnetic field. If much stronger current is flowing through the wire, it will be enveloped with a stronger magnetic field. This clearly attests that individual free electrons are surrounded with a stronger magnetic field than the one of stationary electrons. In addition, more flux of free electrons flow would produce stronger magnetic field along the wire. The magnetic strength of a free electron is not entirely belonged to the electron itself. This's because the free electron is saturated with more number of stationary photons. In addition, dynamic photons would convert some of their kinetic energy to hasten their intrinsic spinning in which this transforms to stronger intrinsic magnetic field that enveloping around the photons as soon as they have transformed to stationary photons that adhered onto the electrons with the assumption that the speed of the electron is approximately 80% of the speed of light. A bare electron itself is also enveloped with its intrinsic magnetic field, but a free electron has a stronger magnetic field than the one of a stationary electron. In other words, all bare charged particles are enveloped with their intrinsic magnetic field as a result of their intrinsic spinning, and free electrons have stronger magnetic field that derived from stationary photons. Both bare electrons and bare positrons are negatively charged particles in which we strongly believe that they are identical to one another in terms of mass content and charges, but they have different intrinsic spinning directions. To make thing easy, we assume all electrons have a clockwise intrinsic spinning direction and the intrinsic spinning direction of all positrons is anticlockwise. Therefore, electrons possess the opposite magnetic field than the one of positrons.

We know with certainty that light is consisted of dynamic photons per volume per time. All differ... more We know with certainty that light is consisted of dynamic photons per volume per time. All different types of EMWs have different saturation of dynamic photons per volume per time. For instance, gamma ray has the highest saturation of dynamic photons per volume per time, and radio wave has the lowest saturation of dynamic photons per volume per time. EMW is not consisted of oscillating electric field and magnetic field that are perpendicular to one another. It isn't true that light has dualism characteristics. Even the diffraction phenomena of light as well as interference experiment of light have been misunderstood; therefore quantum scientists mistaken that lights have dualism characteristics. All celestial bodies within the entire universe are not sitting on the gravitational waves. Lights of a distant star that passing by a massive star like the sun where it would be deflected towards the sun due to mutual gravitational attraction between those photons and the sun itself. No doubt that the mass of a photon is negligible, but due to the massiveness of the sun, it would exert enough gravitational attraction towards those dynamic photons of light of a distant star to be deflected towards the sun. This very phenomenon clearly proves that photons are particles that have mass. Photons Are Negatively Charged Particles When we increased the potential difference between cathode and anode of a cathode tube, there is a stronger suction for free electrons from the cathode by the anode of the cathode tube. We know those free electrons that are produced at higher voltage are saturated with higher number of stationary photons. Therefore, this implies that free electrons that produced by a higher potential difference are perceived to be more negatively charged. Thus, those photons must be negatively charged particles.

Drafts by Kok Fah Chong

Astronomy Dynamic of Universe Currently, the entire universe is still in expanding mode, and it w... more Astronomy Dynamic of Universe Currently, the entire universe is still in expanding mode, and it will continue to expand until it has reached its maximum size before the imminent implosion of the entire universe will take place. Expansion of the universe needs input of energy. As the universe is expanding, more and more kinetic energy has to top up the universal gravitational energy. Einstein's famous equation, E=mc 2 is wrong therefore energy and matter can't interchange one another. Thus, the belief that the universe is expanding at accelerating rate that is fuelled by dark energy that is derived from some dark matter can't hold water.

Particle Physics Electrons J. J. Thompson discovers the first sub-atomic particle electron with h... more Particle Physics Electrons J. J. Thompson discovers the first sub-atomic particle electron with his experiment with cathode tube. He also identifies the electron as a negatively charged particle as the cathode ray is deflected away from the negative plate at the same time it is attracted towards the positive plate that cause it be deflected downwards as shown in Figure 7.1. He identifies the electrons to have enveloped with some magnetic field where its outcome of interaction with an external magnetic field can be worked out with the aid of Fleming left hand rule.

It is a chapter related with everything about atoms. The unique characteristics of an atom, physi... more It is a chapter related with everything about atoms. The unique characteristics of an atom, physically and chemically are due to the uniqueness of its nucleus structure. What is a model of atom has also been disclosed in details.

Heat can be produced through these various processes. They are as followed: 1. Chemical reaction,... more Heat can be produced through these various processes. They are as followed: 1. Chemical reaction, like a burning wood. 2. Electrical operation, like an ecurrent that is flowing through a heating coil. 3. Magnetic action that cause dissipation of heat from an induction cooker.
What is heat? Eventually, we will realize that heat is just dynamic photons per volume per time in a specific saturation.

Magnetism Lodestones and Magnetism Lodestones are the very first magnets that've been discovered ... more Magnetism Lodestones and Magnetism Lodestones are the very first magnets that've been discovered by humans in their natural state. Lodestones are naturally magnetized pieces of the mineral magnetite (Fe 3O4). They're naturally occurring magnets which can attract iron. Subsequently, pieces of lodestones are been used as compasses for navigation purposes without knowing that the earth itself is a gigantic magnet. The magnetism is still pretty much a mystery to us. This chapter contains numerous discoveries to better our understanding on magnetism.

IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics and Frequency Control, 2011

When the number of neutrons within a nucleus is perceived to have too many of them, it would like... more When the number of neutrons within a nucleus is perceived to have too many of them, it would likely undergo either beta emission or neutron emission to reduce the number of neutrons within the nucleus. Therefore neutrons are not completely neutral in charges otherwise having too many of them presence in a nucleus won't perceive to be a threat to its stability. Einstein's famous equation, E=mc 2 is wrong otherwise garbage also can be used to make nuclear bombs as long as it is matter or it has mass. Hydrogen bombs are more powerful than atomic bombs in which hydrogen bombs are made from plutonium-238 atoms that are derived from uranium-238 atoms. Nucleons of uranium-238 atoms are saturated with more stationary photons than the one of uranium-235 (fuel for atomic bombs) in order to squeezing slightly more number of neutrons within the nucleus because neutrons are not completely neutral in charges. Beta emission and Neutron emission Certain radioisotopes will likely undergo beta emission to convert a neutron to a proton by releasing an energetic electron to the surroundings in beta emission when too many neutrons are presence within the nucleus is perceived as a threat to its stability. Therefore this hints that neutrons are not completely neutral in charges otherwise having too many of them within a nucleus won't be a threat to the stability of the nucleus itself if neutrons are completely neutral in charges. Some other radioisotopes will likely undergo neutron emission by emitting out an energetic neutron into the surroundings to reduce the number of neutrons within the nucleus in order to maintain the stability of the nucleus because it perceived to have too many neutrons within the nucleus. Again this hints that neutrons are not completely neutral at all otherwise the presence of too many of them will not perceive as a threat to the stability of the nucleus itself if they are completely neutral in charges.

We still lack of understanding of electricity. This chapter will better our understanding on elec... more We still lack of understanding of electricity. This chapter will better our understanding on electricity.

Electricity is getting more and more important as we use it in more and more large quantity. We m... more Electricity is getting more and more important as we use it in more and more large quantity. We must try to understand electricity inside out to improve the production, enhanced distribution, and improved efficiency in utilization.

This chapter discloses a lot of new discoveries in electricity.

We don't know that free electrons are electrons that are saturated with more stationary photons. ... more We don't know that free electrons are electrons that are saturated with more stationary photons. We also don't know various components of a circuit, like emf source, resistors, capacitors, inductors, and semiconductors. This book is helped explain their physical characteristics and functioning. It is an eye opener discoveries for those who read it.

The utilization of electricity is projected to be increased exponentially in future. In order to ... more The utilization of electricity is projected to be increased exponentially in future. In order to overcome energy crisis, it is inevitable for us to ramp up production of electricity, to improve power transmission, and to increase utilization efficiency.
This Chapter 3 is rightly to be an eye-opener to most readers for them to get to know different aspects of electricity better before we are able to formulate out various sustainable, productive solutions to overcome energy crisis.
In God I trust.

Photons and Chemistry Photons and Chemical Energy There are two distinctive types of chemical rea... more Photons and Chemistry Photons and Chemical Energy There are two distinctive types of chemical reactions, namely endothermic and exothermic reactions. During endothermic reaction, temperature falls because heat from surroundings has been absorbed by reacting reactants before formation of products. On the other hand, temperature rises because heat from reacting reactants dissipating to surroundings before formation of products during exothermic reaction. Surprisingly, exothermic reactions are more common than endothermic reactions. Thus, dissipated heat during an exothermic reaction that can be used to do useful work is commonly referred as chemical energy. What is dissipated heat?

Light is Particles or Waves Among all various types of electromagnetic waves, only visible light ... more Light is Particles or Waves Among all various types of electromagnetic waves, only visible light that could be noticed by our eyes. Besides heat, light was the first type of electromagnetic waves that researched by ancient scientists, like Isaac Newton. Newton believed light is consisted of particles that he coined as corpuscles. Later, a Dutch scientist, Huygens proposed that light is waves. Since then, the theory of light is centered on these two contentious theories.

This draft of the Chapter 3 of my upcoming book, titled EMWs contains plenty of new discoveries r... more This draft of the Chapter 3 of my upcoming book, titled EMWs contains plenty of new discoveries related to electricity for discerning readers to unravel.

The first draft of The Chapter 3 of my upcoming book, titled EMWs. , 2022

This Chapter 3 of the first draft of my upcoming book titled EMWs digressed mostly crucial aspect... more This Chapter 3 of the first draft of my upcoming book titled EMWs digressed mostly crucial aspects in electricity ranging from emf, resistors, capacitors, inductors, semiconductors, and so forth.
Modern life is heavily relying on electricity utilization therefore electricity is playing a growing important role nowadays.
There are plenty of new discoveries awaiting for discerning readers to explore. Enjoy reading!

We have shallow understanding of magnetism but this Chapter 7 of Mind Simulation in Magnetism dis... more We have shallow understanding of magnetism but this Chapter 7 of Mind Simulation in Magnetism disclosed crucial information about mystery of magnetism. When comes to magnetism, we always focus our attention on electrons rather than nucleus. We are wrong by assuming neutrons and protons within the nucleus are weak in their magnetic fields. In reality, nucleons within the nucleus are enveloped with strong magnetic fields where the nucleus collectively forms a unique mosaic of elastic electric field and magnetic field that determining its specific magnetic characteristic.
Nucleons have their intrinsic spin motion that give rise to their intrinsic magnetic field. In additional, nucleons are also saturated with stationary photons in which those stationary photons also help boosting up their magnetic strength further.
We noted that all superconductive substances have high specific heat capacities which prompted us to believe that high saturation of stationary photons within their nuclei chipped in to fostering antiferromagnetic field of their nuclei.

Mind Simulation , 2019

Research in physics is not come up with elegant equations. The capability to look at a phenomenon... more Research in physics is not come up with elegant equations. The capability to look at a phenomenon at atomic level will provide us with advantage to fully understand the phenomenon itself.

Mind Simulation , 2019

Reality fact (1): Richard Feynman and Murray Gell-Mann proposed that existence of weak nuclear fo... more Reality fact (1): Richard Feynman and Murray Gell-Mann proposed that existence of weak nuclear force that causes the nucleus of a radioisotope to decay. On the other hand, Hideki Yukawa proposed the existence of strong nuclear force within the nucleus of a stable element. It's convenient for them to propose the existence of both strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force to distinguish between stable elements and radioisotopes without explaining why and how they come into existence. Imaginary fact (1): Stationary electrons that are revolving around a nucleus have very high speed. But nobody wonders why stationary electrons have very high speeds. Apparently stationary electrons derived their high velocities from the imminent implosion of the universe. By the time those imploding celestial bodies have almost reached the center of the universe, their speeds could be several times the speed of light. Why nucleons within a nucleus don't seem to possess very high speeds? Except hydrogen atoms, nucleons of other elements balanced themselves within a unique nucleus structure which has hidden their high kinetic energy. Nucleons kept their high kinetic energy in a different form that we coined as angular momentum in which their strong angular momentum will manage to squeeze those nucleons together to maintain as a stable nucleus. Those nucleons of fast imploding atoms are also enveloping with very strong intrinsic magnetic field before they reaching the center of the universe. In addition, during the last phase of imminent implosion, the vicinity of the center of the universe is also saturated with very high saturation of available dynamic photons in which they will likely to be amassed onto those strong magnetic nucleons. Nucleons that are saturated with ultra-high saturation of stationary photons will further boost their angular momentum. Thus, only dense and very dense stable elements will be churned out during the last phase of imminent imploding.

Mind Simulation , 2019

The magnetic characteristics of an atom are hinged on the uniqueness of its unique nucleus struct... more The magnetic characteristics of an atom are hinged on the uniqueness of its unique nucleus structure. Until to-date all research about magnetism has been focused on the wrong thing, the electrons.

Mind Simulation , 2019

Free electrons are saturated with abundant stationary photons that cause them to have higher mome... more Free electrons are saturated with abundant stationary photons that cause them to have higher momentum and also enveloping with stronger magnetic field. Photons are the missing link between electricity and magnetism.

Mind Simulation , 2019

Dynamic of the universe is due to its enormous energy that kept in universal gravitational potent... more Dynamic of the universe is due to its enormous energy that kept in universal gravitational potential energy. The expansion of the universe required energy that those celestial bodies tapping from their kinetic energy to do work against gravitational energy therefore the expansion of the universe is slowing down.