Carol Sze Ki Lin - Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by Carol Sze Ki Lin
Bioresource Technology, 2014
Potential of fungal hydrolysis in submerged fermentation by Aspergillus awamori and Aspergillus o... more Potential of fungal hydrolysis in submerged fermentation by Aspergillus awamori and Aspergillus oryzae as a food waste treatment process and for preparation of fermentation feedstock has been investigated. By fungal hydrolysis, 80-90% of the initial amount of waste was reduced and degraded within 36-48 h into glucose, free amino nitrogen (FAN) and phosphate. Experiments revealed that 80-90% of starch can be converted into glucose and highest concentration of FAN obtained, when solid mashes of A. awamori and A. oryzae are successively added to fermentations at an interval of 24h. A maximal solid-to-liquid ratio of 43.2% (w/v) of food waste has been tested without a negative impact on releases of glucose, FAN and phosphate, and final concentrations of 143 g L(-1), 1.8 g L(-1) and 1.6 g L(-1) were obtained in the hydrolysate, respectively. Additionally, fungal hydrolysis as an alternative to conventional treatments for utilization of food waste is discussed.
Bioresource technology, 2014
Heterotrophic cultivation of Chlorella vulgaris was investigated in food waste hydrolysate. The h... more Heterotrophic cultivation of Chlorella vulgaris was investigated in food waste hydrolysate. The highest exponential growth rate in terms of biomass of 0.8day(-1) was obtained in a hydrolysate consisting of 17.9gL(-1) glucose, 0.1gL(-1) free amino nitrogen, 0.3gL(-1) phosphate and 4.8mgL(-1) nitrate, while the growth rate was reduced in higher concentrated hydrolysates. C. vulgaris utilized the nutrients recovered from food waste for the formation of biomass and 0.9g biomass was produced per gram glucose consumed. The microalgal biomass produced in nutrient sufficient batch cultures consisted of around 400mgg(-1) carbohydrates, 200mgg(-1) proteins and 200mgg(-1) lipids. The conversion of nutrients derived from food waste and the balanced biomass composition make C. vulgaris a promising strain for the recycling of food waste in food, feed and fuel productions.
BioMed research international, 2014
In this study, Halomonas boliviensis was cultivated on bakery waste hydrolysate and seawater in b... more In this study, Halomonas boliviensis was cultivated on bakery waste hydrolysate and seawater in batch and fed-batch cultures for polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) production. Results demonstrated that bakery waste hydrolysate and seawater could be efficiently utilized by Halomonas boliviensis while PHB contents between 10 and 30% (w/w) were obtained. Furthermore, three methods for bakery waste hydrolysis were investigated for feedstock preparation. These include: (1) use of crude enzyme extracts from Aspergillus awamori, (2) Aspergillus awamori solid mashes, and (3) commercial glucoamylase. In the first method, the resultant free amino nitrogen (FAN) concentration in hydrolysates was 150 and 250 mg L(-1) after 20 hours at enzyme-to-solid ratios of 6.9 and 13.1 U g(-1), respectively. In both cases, the final glucose concentration was around 130-150 g L(-1). In the second method, the resultant FAN and glucose concentrations were 250 mg L(-1) and 150 g L(-1), respectively. In the third method,...
Chemical Society Reviews, 2014
The transition from a fossil fuel-based economy to a bio-based economy necessitates the exploitat... more The transition from a fossil fuel-based economy to a bio-based economy necessitates the exploitation of synergies, scientific innovations and breakthroughs, and step changes in the infrastructure of chemical industry. Sustainable production of chemicals and biopolymers should be dependent entirely on renewable carbon. White biotechnology could provide the necessary tools for the evolution of microbial bioconversion into a key unit operation in future biorefineries. Waste and by-product streams from existing industrial sectors (e.g., food industry, pulp and paper industry, biodiesel and bioethanol production) could be used as renewable resources for both biorefinery development and production of nutrient-complete fermentation feedstocks. This review focuses on the potential of utilizing waste and by-product streams from current industrial activities for the production of chemicals and biopolymers via microbial bioconversion. The first part of this review presents the current status and prospects on fermentative production of important platform chemicals (i.e., selected C2-C6 metabolic products and single cell oil) and biopolymers (i.e., polyhydroxyalkanoates and bacterial cellulose). In the second part, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of waste and by-product streams from existing industrial sectors are presented. In the third part, the techno-economic aspects of bioconversion processes are critically reviewed. Four case studies showing the potential of case-specific waste and by-product streams for the production of succinic acid and polyhydroxyalkanoates are presented. It is evident that fermentative production of chemicals and biopolymers via refining of waste and by-product streams is a highly important research area with significant prospects for industrial applications.
Food Research International, 2014
ABSTRACT In this study, fatty acid feedstock preparation and lactic acid production as integrated... more ABSTRACT In this study, fatty acid feedstock preparation and lactic acid production as integrated processes in mixed restaurant food and bakery waste treatment were investigated. The treatment included the hydrolysis of waste using extracellular fungal enzymes in submerged fermentation. By hydrolysis, 0.27 g glucose, 4.7 mg free amino nitrogen (FAN) and 1.9 mg phosphate were recovered per gram dry waste material. After hydrolysis, a lipid-rich solid fraction, to be used as a source of fatty acids, remained. The nutrient-rich hydrolysate was used as medium in fed-batch cultures of the heterotrophic microalga Chlorella pyrenoidosa, which grew well at a rate of 1.4 day− 1. In order to establish a cost- and water-efficient process, hydrolysis and algae cultivation were performed in recycled culture supernatant without any negative impacts on the fungal hydrolysis and growth of C. pyrenoidosa. The extraction of lipids from algal biomass and lipid-rich solids resulted in a saturated and unsaturated fatty acid-rich feedstock. Defatted waste derived solids and algal biomass were further tested successfully as nitrogen sources in lactic acid production using Bacillus coagulans. The outcomes of this study contribute to the establishment of a ‘green society’ by utilization of waste material in the production of chemicals, materials and fuels.
Bioresource technology, 2014
Heterotrophic cultivation of Chlorella vulgaris was investigated in food waste hydrolysate. The h... more Heterotrophic cultivation of Chlorella vulgaris was investigated in food waste hydrolysate. The highest exponential growth rate in terms of biomass of 0.8day(-1) was obtained in a hydrolysate consisting of 17.9gL(-1) glucose, 0.1gL(-1) free amino nitrogen, 0.3gL(-1) phosphate and 4.8mgL(-1) nitrate, while the growth rate was reduced in higher concentrated hydrolysates. C. vulgaris utilized the nutrients recovered from food waste for the formation of biomass and 0.9g biomass was produced per gram glucose consumed. The microalgal biomass produced in nutrient sufficient batch cultures consisted of around 400mgg(-1) carbohydrates, 200mgg(-1) proteins and 200mgg(-1) lipids. The conversion of nutrients derived from food waste and the balanced biomass composition make C. vulgaris a promising strain for the recycling of food waste in food, feed and fuel productions.
Biomolecules, 2013
The feasibility of using pastry waste as resource for glucoamylase (GA) production via solid stat... more The feasibility of using pastry waste as resource for glucoamylase (GA) production via solid state fermentation (SSF) was studied. The crude GA extract obtained was used for glucose production from mixed food waste. Our results showed that pastry waste could be used as a sole substrate for GA production. A maximal GA activity of 76.1 ± 6.1 U/mL was obtained at Day 10. The optimal pH and reaction temperature for the crude GA extract for hydrolysis were pH 5.5 and 55 °C, respectively. Under this condition, the half-life of the GA extract was 315.0 minutes with a deactivation constant (k d ) 2.20 × 10 −3 minutes −1 . The application of the crude GA extract for mixed food waste hydrolysis and glucose production was successfully demonstrated. Approximately 53 g glucose was recovered from 100 g of mixed food waste in 1 h under the optimal digestion conditions, highlighting the potential of this approach as an alternative strategy for waste management and sustainable production of glucose applicable as carbon source in many biotechnological processes.
ChemSusChem, Jan 25, 2014
The potential of lipids derived from food-waste and algal biomass (produced from food-waste hydro... more The potential of lipids derived from food-waste and algal biomass (produced from food-waste hydrolysate) for the formation of plasticizers and surfactants is investigated herein. Plasticizers were formed by epoxidation of double bonds of methylated unsaturated fatty acids with in situ generated peroxoformic acid. Assuming that all unsaturated fatty acids are convertible, 0.35 and 0.40 g of plasticizer can be obtained from 1 g of crude algae- or food-waste-derived lipids, respectively. Surfactants were formed by transesterification of saturated and epoxidized fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) with polyglycerol. The addition of polyglycerol would result in a complete conversion of saturated and epoxidized FAMEs to fatty acid polyglycerol esters. This study successfully demonstrates the conversion of food-waste into value-added chemicals using simple and conventional chemical reactions.
Biochemical Engineering …, Jan 1, 2008
Applied microbiology and …, Jan 1, 2007
Bioresource …, Jan 1, 2008
A novel wheat-based bioprocess for the production of a nutrient-complete feedstock for the fermen... more A novel wheat-based bioprocess for the production of a nutrient-complete feedstock for the fermentative succinic acid production by Actinobacillus succinogenes has been developed. Wheat was fractionated into bran, middlings and flour. The bran fraction, which would normally be a waste product of the wheat milling industry, was used as the sole medium in two solid-state fermentations (SSF) of Aspergillus awamori and Aspergillus oryzae that produce enzyme complexes rich in amylolytic and proteolytic enzymes, respectively.
Green Chem., Jan 1, 2008
A novel alternative methodology (direct crystallisation) to the traditional calcium precipitation... more A novel alternative methodology (direct crystallisation) to the traditional calcium precipitation to obtain succinic acid (SA) from defined and wheat-based fermentation broths is reported. SA crystals were successfully recovered from fermentation broths (FB) using this method. A higher SA crystal purity (95%) and yield (70%) were obtained in the direct crystallisation method compared to a slightly modified traditional calcium precipitation method (90% and 24%, respectively). Chemical transformations (e.g. esterifications) to high-added value derivatives of both recovered SA crystals were then investigated using a range of solid acids including our acidic tunable mesoporous carbonaceous materials denoted as Starbon R acids. Results showed that SA crystals could be successfully converted into mono-and diesters in high yields and selectivities employing solid acids regardless of the reaction conditions. The order of reactivity was found to be: pure SA crystals > SA crystals from defined FB > FB SA crystals. Results demonstrate that SA can be effectively purified from actual fermentation broths, showing the importance of integrating the fermentation and downstream processing to optimise the fermentative production of SA and its chemical transformations to produce high-added value derivatives.
In this paper, a novel resin-based crystallisation method was developed for the recovery of succi... more In this paper, a novel resin-based crystallisation method was developed for the recovery of succinic acid (SA) crystals from fermentation broths (FB) using Actinobacillus succinogenes. Direct crystallisation of synthetic fermentation broths was firstly investigated and the results indicated that the synthetic fermentation broth consisting of a mixture of organic acids (in the free acid form rather than in the salt form) could significantly benefit in succinic acid recovery.
The great depression of thirties and the Second World War were the two major historic events, whi... more The great depression of thirties and the Second World War were the two major historic events, which brought radical change in the study of the principles, problems and policies of economic development. This was also necessitated perhaps due to the fact that most of the Asian and African countries got independence from the colonial rule immediately after Second World War. At present economic development had its roots in Europe, which spread to USA, Australia and to several other parts of the world. During the last fifty years, these countries have witnessed highly accelerated rate of economic growth. But other large numbers of countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America have remained more or less stagnant or have progressed with extremely slow rate. The concept of "Economic Development" is often referred to the characteristics that are either causes of or an effect of under development e.g. low capital formation, chronic unemployment, a large percentage of the population living on primary sector and negligible savings are said to be the general conditions that are found in the under developed countries. When a country is set on the course of industrialization and urbanization, then that country is said to be undergoing economic development. The term economic development refers to the process through which an economy is transformed from a traditional one to a developed one. In the past, it has also been typically seen in terms of the planned alteration of the structure of production and employment so that agriculture's share of both declines and that of the manufacturing and service industries increases. Development strategies have therefore usually focused on rapid industrialization, often at the expense of agriculture and rural development. Finally, these principal economic measures of development have often been supplemented by casual reference to non-economic social indicators, e.g. gains in literacy, schooling, health conditions and services and provision of housing etc.
Bioresource technology, 2013
Glucose, free amino nitrogen (FAN), and phosphate were recovered from food waste by fungal hydrol... more Glucose, free amino nitrogen (FAN), and phosphate were recovered from food waste by fungal hydrolysis using Aspergillus awamori and Aspergillus oryzae. Using 100g food waste (dry weight), 31.9 g glucose, 0.28 g FAN, and 0.38 g phosphate were recovered after 24h of hydrolysis. The pure hydrolysate has then been used as culture medium and nutrient source for the two heterotrophic microalgae Schizochytrium mangrovei and Chlorella pyrenoidosa, S. mangrovei and C. pyrenoidosa grew well on the complex food waste hydrolysate by utilizing the nutrients recovered. At the end of fermentation 10-20 g biomass were produced rich in carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Results of this study revealed the potential of food waste hydrolysate as culture medium and nutrient source in microalgae cultivation.
Bioresource Technology, 2014
Potential of fungal hydrolysis in submerged fermentation by Aspergillus awamori and Aspergillus o... more Potential of fungal hydrolysis in submerged fermentation by Aspergillus awamori and Aspergillus oryzae as a food waste treatment process and for preparation of fermentation feedstock has been investigated. By fungal hydrolysis, 80-90% of the initial amount of waste was reduced and degraded within 36-48 h into glucose, free amino nitrogen (FAN) and phosphate. Experiments revealed that 80-90% of starch can be converted into glucose and highest concentration of FAN obtained, when solid mashes of A. awamori and A. oryzae are successively added to fermentations at an interval of 24h. A maximal solid-to-liquid ratio of 43.2% (w/v) of food waste has been tested without a negative impact on releases of glucose, FAN and phosphate, and final concentrations of 143 g L(-1), 1.8 g L(-1) and 1.6 g L(-1) were obtained in the hydrolysate, respectively. Additionally, fungal hydrolysis as an alternative to conventional treatments for utilization of food waste is discussed.
Bioresource technology, 2014
Heterotrophic cultivation of Chlorella vulgaris was investigated in food waste hydrolysate. The h... more Heterotrophic cultivation of Chlorella vulgaris was investigated in food waste hydrolysate. The highest exponential growth rate in terms of biomass of 0.8day(-1) was obtained in a hydrolysate consisting of 17.9gL(-1) glucose, 0.1gL(-1) free amino nitrogen, 0.3gL(-1) phosphate and 4.8mgL(-1) nitrate, while the growth rate was reduced in higher concentrated hydrolysates. C. vulgaris utilized the nutrients recovered from food waste for the formation of biomass and 0.9g biomass was produced per gram glucose consumed. The microalgal biomass produced in nutrient sufficient batch cultures consisted of around 400mgg(-1) carbohydrates, 200mgg(-1) proteins and 200mgg(-1) lipids. The conversion of nutrients derived from food waste and the balanced biomass composition make C. vulgaris a promising strain for the recycling of food waste in food, feed and fuel productions.
BioMed research international, 2014
In this study, Halomonas boliviensis was cultivated on bakery waste hydrolysate and seawater in b... more In this study, Halomonas boliviensis was cultivated on bakery waste hydrolysate and seawater in batch and fed-batch cultures for polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) production. Results demonstrated that bakery waste hydrolysate and seawater could be efficiently utilized by Halomonas boliviensis while PHB contents between 10 and 30% (w/w) were obtained. Furthermore, three methods for bakery waste hydrolysis were investigated for feedstock preparation. These include: (1) use of crude enzyme extracts from Aspergillus awamori, (2) Aspergillus awamori solid mashes, and (3) commercial glucoamylase. In the first method, the resultant free amino nitrogen (FAN) concentration in hydrolysates was 150 and 250 mg L(-1) after 20 hours at enzyme-to-solid ratios of 6.9 and 13.1 U g(-1), respectively. In both cases, the final glucose concentration was around 130-150 g L(-1). In the second method, the resultant FAN and glucose concentrations were 250 mg L(-1) and 150 g L(-1), respectively. In the third method,...
Chemical Society Reviews, 2014
The transition from a fossil fuel-based economy to a bio-based economy necessitates the exploitat... more The transition from a fossil fuel-based economy to a bio-based economy necessitates the exploitation of synergies, scientific innovations and breakthroughs, and step changes in the infrastructure of chemical industry. Sustainable production of chemicals and biopolymers should be dependent entirely on renewable carbon. White biotechnology could provide the necessary tools for the evolution of microbial bioconversion into a key unit operation in future biorefineries. Waste and by-product streams from existing industrial sectors (e.g., food industry, pulp and paper industry, biodiesel and bioethanol production) could be used as renewable resources for both biorefinery development and production of nutrient-complete fermentation feedstocks. This review focuses on the potential of utilizing waste and by-product streams from current industrial activities for the production of chemicals and biopolymers via microbial bioconversion. The first part of this review presents the current status and prospects on fermentative production of important platform chemicals (i.e., selected C2-C6 metabolic products and single cell oil) and biopolymers (i.e., polyhydroxyalkanoates and bacterial cellulose). In the second part, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of waste and by-product streams from existing industrial sectors are presented. In the third part, the techno-economic aspects of bioconversion processes are critically reviewed. Four case studies showing the potential of case-specific waste and by-product streams for the production of succinic acid and polyhydroxyalkanoates are presented. It is evident that fermentative production of chemicals and biopolymers via refining of waste and by-product streams is a highly important research area with significant prospects for industrial applications.
Food Research International, 2014
ABSTRACT In this study, fatty acid feedstock preparation and lactic acid production as integrated... more ABSTRACT In this study, fatty acid feedstock preparation and lactic acid production as integrated processes in mixed restaurant food and bakery waste treatment were investigated. The treatment included the hydrolysis of waste using extracellular fungal enzymes in submerged fermentation. By hydrolysis, 0.27 g glucose, 4.7 mg free amino nitrogen (FAN) and 1.9 mg phosphate were recovered per gram dry waste material. After hydrolysis, a lipid-rich solid fraction, to be used as a source of fatty acids, remained. The nutrient-rich hydrolysate was used as medium in fed-batch cultures of the heterotrophic microalga Chlorella pyrenoidosa, which grew well at a rate of 1.4 day− 1. In order to establish a cost- and water-efficient process, hydrolysis and algae cultivation were performed in recycled culture supernatant without any negative impacts on the fungal hydrolysis and growth of C. pyrenoidosa. The extraction of lipids from algal biomass and lipid-rich solids resulted in a saturated and unsaturated fatty acid-rich feedstock. Defatted waste derived solids and algal biomass were further tested successfully as nitrogen sources in lactic acid production using Bacillus coagulans. The outcomes of this study contribute to the establishment of a ‘green society’ by utilization of waste material in the production of chemicals, materials and fuels.
Bioresource technology, 2014
Heterotrophic cultivation of Chlorella vulgaris was investigated in food waste hydrolysate. The h... more Heterotrophic cultivation of Chlorella vulgaris was investigated in food waste hydrolysate. The highest exponential growth rate in terms of biomass of 0.8day(-1) was obtained in a hydrolysate consisting of 17.9gL(-1) glucose, 0.1gL(-1) free amino nitrogen, 0.3gL(-1) phosphate and 4.8mgL(-1) nitrate, while the growth rate was reduced in higher concentrated hydrolysates. C. vulgaris utilized the nutrients recovered from food waste for the formation of biomass and 0.9g biomass was produced per gram glucose consumed. The microalgal biomass produced in nutrient sufficient batch cultures consisted of around 400mgg(-1) carbohydrates, 200mgg(-1) proteins and 200mgg(-1) lipids. The conversion of nutrients derived from food waste and the balanced biomass composition make C. vulgaris a promising strain for the recycling of food waste in food, feed and fuel productions.
Biomolecules, 2013
The feasibility of using pastry waste as resource for glucoamylase (GA) production via solid stat... more The feasibility of using pastry waste as resource for glucoamylase (GA) production via solid state fermentation (SSF) was studied. The crude GA extract obtained was used for glucose production from mixed food waste. Our results showed that pastry waste could be used as a sole substrate for GA production. A maximal GA activity of 76.1 ± 6.1 U/mL was obtained at Day 10. The optimal pH and reaction temperature for the crude GA extract for hydrolysis were pH 5.5 and 55 °C, respectively. Under this condition, the half-life of the GA extract was 315.0 minutes with a deactivation constant (k d ) 2.20 × 10 −3 minutes −1 . The application of the crude GA extract for mixed food waste hydrolysis and glucose production was successfully demonstrated. Approximately 53 g glucose was recovered from 100 g of mixed food waste in 1 h under the optimal digestion conditions, highlighting the potential of this approach as an alternative strategy for waste management and sustainable production of glucose applicable as carbon source in many biotechnological processes.
ChemSusChem, Jan 25, 2014
The potential of lipids derived from food-waste and algal biomass (produced from food-waste hydro... more The potential of lipids derived from food-waste and algal biomass (produced from food-waste hydrolysate) for the formation of plasticizers and surfactants is investigated herein. Plasticizers were formed by epoxidation of double bonds of methylated unsaturated fatty acids with in situ generated peroxoformic acid. Assuming that all unsaturated fatty acids are convertible, 0.35 and 0.40 g of plasticizer can be obtained from 1 g of crude algae- or food-waste-derived lipids, respectively. Surfactants were formed by transesterification of saturated and epoxidized fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) with polyglycerol. The addition of polyglycerol would result in a complete conversion of saturated and epoxidized FAMEs to fatty acid polyglycerol esters. This study successfully demonstrates the conversion of food-waste into value-added chemicals using simple and conventional chemical reactions.
Biochemical Engineering …, Jan 1, 2008
Applied microbiology and …, Jan 1, 2007
Bioresource …, Jan 1, 2008
A novel wheat-based bioprocess for the production of a nutrient-complete feedstock for the fermen... more A novel wheat-based bioprocess for the production of a nutrient-complete feedstock for the fermentative succinic acid production by Actinobacillus succinogenes has been developed. Wheat was fractionated into bran, middlings and flour. The bran fraction, which would normally be a waste product of the wheat milling industry, was used as the sole medium in two solid-state fermentations (SSF) of Aspergillus awamori and Aspergillus oryzae that produce enzyme complexes rich in amylolytic and proteolytic enzymes, respectively.
Green Chem., Jan 1, 2008
A novel alternative methodology (direct crystallisation) to the traditional calcium precipitation... more A novel alternative methodology (direct crystallisation) to the traditional calcium precipitation to obtain succinic acid (SA) from defined and wheat-based fermentation broths is reported. SA crystals were successfully recovered from fermentation broths (FB) using this method. A higher SA crystal purity (95%) and yield (70%) were obtained in the direct crystallisation method compared to a slightly modified traditional calcium precipitation method (90% and 24%, respectively). Chemical transformations (e.g. esterifications) to high-added value derivatives of both recovered SA crystals were then investigated using a range of solid acids including our acidic tunable mesoporous carbonaceous materials denoted as Starbon R acids. Results showed that SA crystals could be successfully converted into mono-and diesters in high yields and selectivities employing solid acids regardless of the reaction conditions. The order of reactivity was found to be: pure SA crystals > SA crystals from defined FB > FB SA crystals. Results demonstrate that SA can be effectively purified from actual fermentation broths, showing the importance of integrating the fermentation and downstream processing to optimise the fermentative production of SA and its chemical transformations to produce high-added value derivatives.
In this paper, a novel resin-based crystallisation method was developed for the recovery of succi... more In this paper, a novel resin-based crystallisation method was developed for the recovery of succinic acid (SA) crystals from fermentation broths (FB) using Actinobacillus succinogenes. Direct crystallisation of synthetic fermentation broths was firstly investigated and the results indicated that the synthetic fermentation broth consisting of a mixture of organic acids (in the free acid form rather than in the salt form) could significantly benefit in succinic acid recovery.
The great depression of thirties and the Second World War were the two major historic events, whi... more The great depression of thirties and the Second World War were the two major historic events, which brought radical change in the study of the principles, problems and policies of economic development. This was also necessitated perhaps due to the fact that most of the Asian and African countries got independence from the colonial rule immediately after Second World War. At present economic development had its roots in Europe, which spread to USA, Australia and to several other parts of the world. During the last fifty years, these countries have witnessed highly accelerated rate of economic growth. But other large numbers of countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America have remained more or less stagnant or have progressed with extremely slow rate. The concept of "Economic Development" is often referred to the characteristics that are either causes of or an effect of under development e.g. low capital formation, chronic unemployment, a large percentage of the population living on primary sector and negligible savings are said to be the general conditions that are found in the under developed countries. When a country is set on the course of industrialization and urbanization, then that country is said to be undergoing economic development. The term economic development refers to the process through which an economy is transformed from a traditional one to a developed one. In the past, it has also been typically seen in terms of the planned alteration of the structure of production and employment so that agriculture's share of both declines and that of the manufacturing and service industries increases. Development strategies have therefore usually focused on rapid industrialization, often at the expense of agriculture and rural development. Finally, these principal economic measures of development have often been supplemented by casual reference to non-economic social indicators, e.g. gains in literacy, schooling, health conditions and services and provision of housing etc.
Bioresource technology, 2013
Glucose, free amino nitrogen (FAN), and phosphate were recovered from food waste by fungal hydrol... more Glucose, free amino nitrogen (FAN), and phosphate were recovered from food waste by fungal hydrolysis using Aspergillus awamori and Aspergillus oryzae. Using 100g food waste (dry weight), 31.9 g glucose, 0.28 g FAN, and 0.38 g phosphate were recovered after 24h of hydrolysis. The pure hydrolysate has then been used as culture medium and nutrient source for the two heterotrophic microalgae Schizochytrium mangrovei and Chlorella pyrenoidosa, S. mangrovei and C. pyrenoidosa grew well on the complex food waste hydrolysate by utilizing the nutrients recovered. At the end of fermentation 10-20 g biomass were produced rich in carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Results of this study revealed the potential of food waste hydrolysate as culture medium and nutrient source in microalgae cultivation.