Linda Gaines - Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by Linda Gaines
Linda Gaines - Center for Transportation Research, Argonne National Laboratory. Lithium-ion batte... more Linda Gaines - Center for Transportation Research, Argonne National Laboratory. Lithium-ion batteries are used in mass-market consumer items, and they are just beginning to be used in vehicles with electric drive. This market is expected to grow rapidly, amplifying the reasons for determining appropriate disposition options for the batteries at the end of their useful lives. Recycling reduces potential environmental issues with disposal, mitigates raw material scarcity concerns, and is required by law in some locations. However, determining the best recycling methods is a difficult problem for several reasons. Recycling processes that are commercially available or under development vary in acceptable feedstocks, process energy use and effluents, and in the form and content of the materials recovered. Material may be recovered as a mixture of metallic elements, reusable active materials, or somewhere in between. As a general rule, higher valued products can be recovered from input streams made up of batteries with a single chemistry, but separation may be difficult or costly, so separation after processing is also being considered. In addition, potentially valuable products like cathode materials from automotive batteries may in fact be less valuable than expected by the time they are actually recovered at the end of the batteries’ long lifetime. Because battery chemistries are evolving rapidly, it is unclear what the value will be of a cathode material recovered after 10 or more years. Therefore, recovery of material for use earlier in the production chain might be more useful. This work discussed the technical and economic issues involved in development of appropriate recycling methods for large-format lithium-ion batteries.Ope
Most advice to the public about idle-reduction lacks scientific basis and the information in the ... more Most advice to the public about idle-reduction lacks scientific basis and the information in the literature is often inconsistent. Argonne National Laboratory performed some simple experiments to provide a preliminary factual basis for recommendations on when to keep the engine on, and when to turn it off, for the minimum environmental impact. Previous work demonstrated that idling is a very inefficient way to warm up a car (diesel might never warm up if it’s very cold), and that the catalytic converter cools slowly enough that it will still be working upon return to the car after a short stop. The argument against parking and going into a business, rather than using a drive-through window, has been that the emissions and fuel use associated with restarting the car are greater than those incurred by idling for that time. Argonne undertook a series of measurements to determine whether this was true by comparing actual idling fuel use and emissions with those for restarting. This work...
New US Environmental Protection Agency regulations are forcing locomotive manufacturers and railr... more New US Environmental Protection Agency regulations are forcing locomotive manufacturers and railroads to reduce pollutant emissions from locomotive operation. All new locomotives must meet strict standards when they are built, and existing locomotives must comply when they are rebuilt. Emissions can be reduced either by adjusting combustion parameters, which incurs a fuel penalty, or by turning the diesel engine off when the train is not moving and would otherwise be idling. The latter reduces fuel consumption, but requires installation of a device--such as an auxiliary power unit (APU)--to ensure that the engine can be restarted in cold weather and to supply hotel loads for the crew. Without a financial incentive, capital-short railroads will opt to achieve compliance in the least costly way. However, if they have the option of selling emissions credits from reducing emissions below regulated levels, it would be in their best interest to install additional equipment to minimize emi...
Previous work by Gaines and Brodrick compared fuel-cycle air pollutant emissions from long-durati... more Previous work by Gaines and Brodrick compared fuel-cycle air pollutant emissions from long-duration idling of Class 8 trucks to those from various idling-reduction (IR) technologies. That work was written before measurements from model year 2007 trucks with diesel particulate filters (DPFs) were available and before 2010 heavy-duty engine nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) restrictions were in place. Overall emissions from trucks on the road, including idling emissions, have presumably been reduced significantly since then, but even today, few measurements of idling emissions from trucks meeting 2007 and 2010 emission standards have been published. However, emissions from IR devices have not changed significantly, as small engine standards are unchanged. This paper compares existing information on new truck idling emissions to that on emissions from IR devices. The authors conclude that use of some idling-reduction devices in place of idling may not actually reduce all air pollutant emissions, a...
Fuel and Energy Abstracts, 1999
Various alternative fuels and improved engine and vehicle systems have been proposed in order to ... more Various alternative fuels and improved engine and vehicle systems have been proposed in order to reduce emissions and energy use associated with heavy vehicles (predominantly trucks). For example, oil companies have proposed improved methods for converting natural gas to zero-aromatics, zero-sulfur diesel fuel via the Fischer-Tropsch process. Major heavy-duty diesel engine companies are working on ways to simultaneously reduce particulate-matter and NOx emissions. The trend in heavy vehicles is toward use of lightweight materials, tires with lower rolling resistance, and treatments to reduce aerodynamic drag. In this paper, we compare the lifecycle energy use and emissions from trucks using selected alternatives, such as Fisher-Tropsch diesel fuel and advanced fuel-efficient engines. We consider heavy-duty, Class 8 tractor-semitrailer combinations for this analysis. The total lifecycle includes production and recycling of the vehicle itself; extraction, processing, and transportation of the fuel itself; and vehicle operation and maintenance. Energy use is considered in toto, as well as those portions that are imported, domestic, and renewable. Emissions of interest include greenhouse gases and criteria pollutants. Pjos Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) model is used to generate per-vehicle fuel cycle impacts. Energy use and emissions for materials manufacturing and vehicle disposal are estimated by means of materials information from Pjos Company studies. We conclude that there are trade-offs among impacts. For example, the lowest fossil energy use does not necessarily result in lowest total energy use, and lower tailpipe emissions may not necessarily result in lower lifecycle emissions of all criteria pollutants.
ECS Meeting Abstracts, 2018
We will need recycling facilities to handle the avalanche of batteries reaching their end-of-life... more We will need recycling facilities to handle the avalanche of batteries reaching their end-of-life, estimated to be over 20,000 metric tons from electric vehicles alone in the U.S. by 2025. Even if the batteries do find a second use (which is in question), they will eventually be unsuitable for further use and require some sort of environmentally acceptable and economically viable end-of-life handling. Disposal is not a suitable option; the batteries will need to be recycled to deliver better environmental and economic benefits. This presentation will examine barriers to recycling, compare available processes, and suggest ways to optimize the battery life-cycle.
ECS Meeting Abstracts, 2018
The number of plug-in electric vehicles sold in the U.S. has grown from 52,500 units in 2012 to o... more The number of plug-in electric vehicles sold in the U.S. has grown from 52,500 units in 2012 to over 160,000 vehicles sold in 2016; that is over a 300% increase in just four years. These vehicles’ batteries are going to reach auto dismantlers after approximately 10 years and require proper end-of-life processing, but the current solutions are not cost-effective. Argonne National Laboratory has developed a model that evaluates every stage of a battery’s life from material acquisition through recycling to provide a total cost and environmental impact. This allows for a direct comparison of virgin batteries to batteries with recycled content.
Resources and Energy, 1981
Abstract Discarded tires that are not recycled through retreading are a serious solid waste probl... more Abstract Discarded tires that are not recycled through retreading are a serious solid waste problem but could provide a source of hydrocarbons for use as fuel, feedstock, and material. We estimate that discarded tires used as a solid fuel would displace about 15,000 Btu/lb as a derived fuel and chemical feedstock, about 11,000–23,000 Btu/lb as a substitute for virgin rubber compound in traditional rubber products, about 27,000–33,000 Btu/lb and as an asphalt additive for paving applications, about 90,000 Btu/lb. Both the energy embodied in the displaced fuel and material and the energy consumed in preparing the tires for the above uses have been included where possible. Analysis of the cost and potential for using the resource shows that production of pyrolysis products or road pavement from discarded tires now merits serious joint consideration by the public and private sectors as an economic alternative to the present practice of disposal in landfill.
Cessation of the Cold War and renewed international attention to the proliferation of weapons of ... more Cessation of the Cold War and renewed international attention to the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction are leading to national policies aimed at restraining nuclear-weapons proliferation that could occur through the nuclear-fuel cycle. Argonne, which has unique experience, technology, and capabilities, is one of the US national laboratories contributing to this nonproliferation effort.
SAE Technical Paper Series, 2000
As part of a study of energy conservation efforts in schools and hospitals and an evaluation of t... more As part of a study of energy conservation efforts in schools and hospitals and an evaluation of the Institutional Conservation Program sponsored by the US Department of Energy, survey instruments that will be sent to large numbers of elementary and secondary schools and school districts were pretested. The survey instruments solicit information on energy conservation activities, decision-making processes, and energy
International Journal of Waste Resources, Aug 10, 2017
Linda Gaines - Center for Transportation Research, Argonne National Laboratory. Lithium-ion batte... more Linda Gaines - Center for Transportation Research, Argonne National Laboratory. Lithium-ion batteries are used in mass-market consumer items, and they are just beginning to be used in vehicles with electric drive. This market is expected to grow rapidly, amplifying the reasons for determining appropriate disposition options for the batteries at the end of their useful lives. Recycling reduces potential environmental issues with disposal, mitigates raw material scarcity concerns, and is required by law in some locations. However, determining the best recycling methods is a difficult problem for several reasons. Recycling processes that are commercially available or under development vary in acceptable feedstocks, process energy use and effluents, and in the form and content of the materials recovered. Material may be recovered as a mixture of metallic elements, reusable active materials, or somewhere in between. As a general rule, higher valued products can be recovered from input streams made up of batteries with a single chemistry, but separation may be difficult or costly, so separation after processing is also being considered. In addition, potentially valuable products like cathode materials from automotive batteries may in fact be less valuable than expected by the time they are actually recovered at the end of the batteries’ long lifetime. Because battery chemistries are evolving rapidly, it is unclear what the value will be of a cathode material recovered after 10 or more years. Therefore, recovery of material for use earlier in the production chain might be more useful. This work discussed the technical and economic issues involved in development of appropriate recycling methods for large-format lithium-ion batteries.Ope
Most advice to the public about idle-reduction lacks scientific basis and the information in the ... more Most advice to the public about idle-reduction lacks scientific basis and the information in the literature is often inconsistent. Argonne National Laboratory performed some simple experiments to provide a preliminary factual basis for recommendations on when to keep the engine on, and when to turn it off, for the minimum environmental impact. Previous work demonstrated that idling is a very inefficient way to warm up a car (diesel might never warm up if it’s very cold), and that the catalytic converter cools slowly enough that it will still be working upon return to the car after a short stop. The argument against parking and going into a business, rather than using a drive-through window, has been that the emissions and fuel use associated with restarting the car are greater than those incurred by idling for that time. Argonne undertook a series of measurements to determine whether this was true by comparing actual idling fuel use and emissions with those for restarting. This work...
New US Environmental Protection Agency regulations are forcing locomotive manufacturers and railr... more New US Environmental Protection Agency regulations are forcing locomotive manufacturers and railroads to reduce pollutant emissions from locomotive operation. All new locomotives must meet strict standards when they are built, and existing locomotives must comply when they are rebuilt. Emissions can be reduced either by adjusting combustion parameters, which incurs a fuel penalty, or by turning the diesel engine off when the train is not moving and would otherwise be idling. The latter reduces fuel consumption, but requires installation of a device--such as an auxiliary power unit (APU)--to ensure that the engine can be restarted in cold weather and to supply hotel loads for the crew. Without a financial incentive, capital-short railroads will opt to achieve compliance in the least costly way. However, if they have the option of selling emissions credits from reducing emissions below regulated levels, it would be in their best interest to install additional equipment to minimize emi...
Previous work by Gaines and Brodrick compared fuel-cycle air pollutant emissions from long-durati... more Previous work by Gaines and Brodrick compared fuel-cycle air pollutant emissions from long-duration idling of Class 8 trucks to those from various idling-reduction (IR) technologies. That work was written before measurements from model year 2007 trucks with diesel particulate filters (DPFs) were available and before 2010 heavy-duty engine nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) restrictions were in place. Overall emissions from trucks on the road, including idling emissions, have presumably been reduced significantly since then, but even today, few measurements of idling emissions from trucks meeting 2007 and 2010 emission standards have been published. However, emissions from IR devices have not changed significantly, as small engine standards are unchanged. This paper compares existing information on new truck idling emissions to that on emissions from IR devices. The authors conclude that use of some idling-reduction devices in place of idling may not actually reduce all air pollutant emissions, a...
Fuel and Energy Abstracts, 1999
Various alternative fuels and improved engine and vehicle systems have been proposed in order to ... more Various alternative fuels and improved engine and vehicle systems have been proposed in order to reduce emissions and energy use associated with heavy vehicles (predominantly trucks). For example, oil companies have proposed improved methods for converting natural gas to zero-aromatics, zero-sulfur diesel fuel via the Fischer-Tropsch process. Major heavy-duty diesel engine companies are working on ways to simultaneously reduce particulate-matter and NOx emissions. The trend in heavy vehicles is toward use of lightweight materials, tires with lower rolling resistance, and treatments to reduce aerodynamic drag. In this paper, we compare the lifecycle energy use and emissions from trucks using selected alternatives, such as Fisher-Tropsch diesel fuel and advanced fuel-efficient engines. We consider heavy-duty, Class 8 tractor-semitrailer combinations for this analysis. The total lifecycle includes production and recycling of the vehicle itself; extraction, processing, and transportation of the fuel itself; and vehicle operation and maintenance. Energy use is considered in toto, as well as those portions that are imported, domestic, and renewable. Emissions of interest include greenhouse gases and criteria pollutants. Pjos Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) model is used to generate per-vehicle fuel cycle impacts. Energy use and emissions for materials manufacturing and vehicle disposal are estimated by means of materials information from Pjos Company studies. We conclude that there are trade-offs among impacts. For example, the lowest fossil energy use does not necessarily result in lowest total energy use, and lower tailpipe emissions may not necessarily result in lower lifecycle emissions of all criteria pollutants.
ECS Meeting Abstracts, 2018
We will need recycling facilities to handle the avalanche of batteries reaching their end-of-life... more We will need recycling facilities to handle the avalanche of batteries reaching their end-of-life, estimated to be over 20,000 metric tons from electric vehicles alone in the U.S. by 2025. Even if the batteries do find a second use (which is in question), they will eventually be unsuitable for further use and require some sort of environmentally acceptable and economically viable end-of-life handling. Disposal is not a suitable option; the batteries will need to be recycled to deliver better environmental and economic benefits. This presentation will examine barriers to recycling, compare available processes, and suggest ways to optimize the battery life-cycle.
ECS Meeting Abstracts, 2018
The number of plug-in electric vehicles sold in the U.S. has grown from 52,500 units in 2012 to o... more The number of plug-in electric vehicles sold in the U.S. has grown from 52,500 units in 2012 to over 160,000 vehicles sold in 2016; that is over a 300% increase in just four years. These vehicles’ batteries are going to reach auto dismantlers after approximately 10 years and require proper end-of-life processing, but the current solutions are not cost-effective. Argonne National Laboratory has developed a model that evaluates every stage of a battery’s life from material acquisition through recycling to provide a total cost and environmental impact. This allows for a direct comparison of virgin batteries to batteries with recycled content.
Resources and Energy, 1981
Abstract Discarded tires that are not recycled through retreading are a serious solid waste probl... more Abstract Discarded tires that are not recycled through retreading are a serious solid waste problem but could provide a source of hydrocarbons for use as fuel, feedstock, and material. We estimate that discarded tires used as a solid fuel would displace about 15,000 Btu/lb as a derived fuel and chemical feedstock, about 11,000–23,000 Btu/lb as a substitute for virgin rubber compound in traditional rubber products, about 27,000–33,000 Btu/lb and as an asphalt additive for paving applications, about 90,000 Btu/lb. Both the energy embodied in the displaced fuel and material and the energy consumed in preparing the tires for the above uses have been included where possible. Analysis of the cost and potential for using the resource shows that production of pyrolysis products or road pavement from discarded tires now merits serious joint consideration by the public and private sectors as an economic alternative to the present practice of disposal in landfill.
Cessation of the Cold War and renewed international attention to the proliferation of weapons of ... more Cessation of the Cold War and renewed international attention to the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction are leading to national policies aimed at restraining nuclear-weapons proliferation that could occur through the nuclear-fuel cycle. Argonne, which has unique experience, technology, and capabilities, is one of the US national laboratories contributing to this nonproliferation effort.
SAE Technical Paper Series, 2000
As part of a study of energy conservation efforts in schools and hospitals and an evaluation of t... more As part of a study of energy conservation efforts in schools and hospitals and an evaluation of the Institutional Conservation Program sponsored by the US Department of Energy, survey instruments that will be sent to large numbers of elementary and secondary schools and school districts were pretested. The survey instruments solicit information on energy conservation activities, decision-making processes, and energy
International Journal of Waste Resources, Aug 10, 2017