Albert Link - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Albert Link

One can trace the origins of public/private partnerships—federal grants assistance technology par... more One can trace the origins of public/private partnerships—federal grants assistance technology partnerships—in the United States at least as far back as the Lincoln Administration. As noted in Link (1999), the Morrill Act of 1862 established what was known as the land-grant college system. In effect, this legislation created a partnership between the federal and state governments to cooperate with the private sector in technology development. The Act charged states to develop colleges to offer curricula in agriculture and mechanical arts. Then in 1887, the Hatch Act provided resources for a system of state agriculture experiment stations that would be under the auspices of land-grant colleges and universities. A partnership among the various levels of government was established by the Smith-Level Act of 1914. The Cooperative Agriculture Extension service was charged to deliver the practical benefits of research to citizens through an extension service.

The development of science, technology, and economic growth in the United States was greatly infl... more The development of science, technology, and economic growth in the United States was greatly influenced by the scientific discoveries and university infrastructure within Europe during the colonial period. While it is difficult to pinpoint how or which specific elements of scientific and technical knowledge diffused across the Atlantic, certain milestone events can be dated and key individuals can be identified.

Review of Industrial Organization

Research, science, and technology parks are increasingly seen as a means to create dynamic cluste... more Research, science, and technology parks are increasingly seen as a means to create dynamic clusters that accelerate economic growth and international competitiveness through the transfer of knowledge and technology. As such, it is important to understand the academic literature related to research, science, and technology parks (hereafter R-S-T parks, or simply parks) because that literature, albeit embryonic, has had and will continue to frame public policies related to park formations and growth. The purpose of this chapter is thus to overview the extant academic literature on knowledge and technology transfer to and from parks, and to discuss its importance to public policy issues.

Perception and action describe the entrepreneur as a dynamic figure in economic activity. It foll... more Perception and action describe the entrepreneur as a dynamic figure in economic activity. It follows then that entrepreneurship entails a process that begins with perception and is completed with action. When it comes to places—meaning physical localities—rarely is it the case that the perception of opportunity and the ability to act on that perception are embodied in a single individual. This paper illustrates the strategic management of one place in particular, Research Triangle Park in central North Carolina. This history of Research Triangle Park suggests and that the early perception for the park, and the action to see it from “seed to harvest,” were the result of many individuals each exhibiting their own entrepreneurial ability. Thus, we introduce the notion of collective entrepreneurship, and we suggest that it might be a critical ingredient to a recipe for the successful strategic management of places.

Edith Penrose was one of the first scholars to point out that firms may need to rely on research ... more Edith Penrose was one of the first scholars to point out that firms may need to rely on research joint ventures (RJVs) to acquire access to resources that can help them achieve and sustain a competitive advantage. We estimate an econometric model of the propensity of firms to disclose their intension to engage in RJVs, in order to explain the recent precipitous decline in

An increase in strategic research partnerships (SRPs) involving U.S. firms and nonprofit organiza... more An increase in strategic research partnerships (SRPs) involving U.S. firms and nonprofit organizations could be due to more intense foreign competition and policies promoting collaborative research, such as the National Cooperative Research Act (NCRA). NCRA allows firms to file research joint ventures (RJVs) with the Justice Department and reduce their exposure to antitrust litigation. We estimate an econometric model of RJV filings and find an inverse relationship between proxies for global high-technology competition and RJVs. Structural stability tests indicate that the Commerce Department's Advanced Technology Program may have caused a structural shift in the propensity of firms to sponsor RJVs.

Science and Public Policy

Five important policy initiatives were promulgated in response to the slowdown in US productivity... more Five important policy initiatives were promulgated in response to the slowdown in US productivity in the early 1970s, and then again in the late 1970s and early 1980s. These initiatives included the Bayh–Dole Act of 1980, the Stevenson–Wydler Act of 1980, the Research and Experimentation Tax Credit Act of 1981, the Small Business Innovation and Development Act of 1982, and the National Cooperative Research Act of 1984. Scholars and policy-makers have long debated the direction and magnitude of impacts from these policies but empirical evidence remains modest, especially evidence of their aggregate effects. Our assessment of these policies is based on quantifying their collective impact on industrial investments in R&D in the post-productivity slowdown period. Our findings support the conclusion that the relative levels of industrial investments in R&D from 1980 onwards were significantly higher than before, ceteris paribus.

The Economics of Science and Technology, 2002

ABSTRACT For purposes of measurement, there are three fundamental dimensions of R&D. The ... more ABSTRACT For purposes of measurement, there are three fundamental dimensions of R&D. The first relates to the source of funding of R&D (who finances the investment), the second to the performance of R&D (who conducts the research and development), and the third to the character of use of R&D (whether the undertaking is of a basic or applied nature, or development). These three fundamental dimensions are not mutually exclusive.

The Economics of Science and Technology, 2002

ABSTRACT An integrated entrepreneurial process is illustrated in Figure 12.1. As in the earlier s... more ABSTRACT An integrated entrepreneurial process is illustrated in Figure 12.1. As in the earlier schematics in Figure 1.1 and Figure 3.3, the strategic direction of the firm and the competitive pressures that it faces motivate an entrepreneurial response. R&D activity is the primary resource that the firm relies upon to investigate the appropriate response and to act upon it.

The Economics of Science and Technology, 2002

ABSTRACT From an economic standpoint, the concept of innovation can be traced at least as far bac... more ABSTRACT From an economic standpoint, the concept of innovation can be traced at least as far back as the Physiocrats in France in the mid-1700s. Nicolas Baudeau (1910, p. 46) referred to a process guided by an active agent, which he called an entrepreneur, within a capitalistic system: Such is the goal of the grand productive enterprises: first to increase the harvest by two, three, four, ten times if possible; secondly to reduce the amount of labor employed and so reduce costs by a half, a third, a fourth, or a tenth, whatever possible.

The Economics of Science and Technology, 2002

ABSTRACT The history of the U.S. patent system dates to the authority given to Congress in the Co... more ABSTRACT The history of the U.S. patent system dates to the authority given to Congress in the Constitution of the United States. Article I, section 8 states: Congress shall have power ... to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries.

The Economics of Science and Technology, 2002

ABSTRACT Key inputs into the R&D process are scientists and engineers (S&E) worki... more ABSTRACT Key inputs into the R&D process are scientists and engineers (S&E) working in R&D laboratories. Because of the need for these individuals to be highly trained, one might conclude the relevant segment of that workforce consists of those who are doctoral trained.

The Journal of Technology Transfer

The Annals of Regional Science

US technology-based initiatives at the state level continue to emphasize regional economic develo... more US technology-based initiatives at the state level continue to emphasize regional economic development and job growth. Many are now also focused on green technologies. This paper describes one such green program, the North Carolina Green Business Fund. Based on an analysis of 24 funded R&D projects in 2008 and 2009, we find that 59 new full-time equivalent jobs were created in the short run through this program. We also find that those organizations that can attract greater additional financial support for their research generate more jobs. Lastly, we find that university involvement in these projects tempers job losses among projects discontinued early as well as job growth among those that commercialized their technologies. We cautiously offer, because of limited data, recommendations to states with similar programs to create structures to advise technology-based research organizations about sources of additional financial resources.

We present quantitative and qualitative evidence (field research) on university technology transf... more We present quantitative and qualitative evidence (field research) on university technology transfer offices (TTOs). These offices negotiate licensing agreements with firms to commercialize university-based technologies. A stochastic frontier production function framework is used to assess the relative productivity of 113 university TTOs. Our field research provided a useful reality check on the specification of the econometric model. The empirical findings imply that licensing activity is characterized by constant returns to scale. Environmental and institutional factors appear to explain some of the variation in TTO efficiency.

Small Business Economics, 2014

ABSTRACT This paper models the entrepreneurial process as both creation and discovery composed of... more ABSTRACT This paper models the entrepreneurial process as both creation and discovery composed of an iterative two-step process where entrepreneurs create social networks based on subjective expectations about the future effectiveness of those networks, and then choose the innovation to pursue and map a search process to discover how to bring the innovation to fruition. Critical to this process is the mix of strong ties and weak ties that make up social networks and the ability to carry forward the social capital embodied in such networks. The tendency of long-existing entrepreneurs to be less innovative can be explained using this model.

IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 2015

One can trace the origins of public/private partnerships—federal grants assistance technology par... more One can trace the origins of public/private partnerships—federal grants assistance technology partnerships—in the United States at least as far back as the Lincoln Administration. As noted in Link (1999), the Morrill Act of 1862 established what was known as the land-grant college system. In effect, this legislation created a partnership between the federal and state governments to cooperate with the private sector in technology development. The Act charged states to develop colleges to offer curricula in agriculture and mechanical arts. Then in 1887, the Hatch Act provided resources for a system of state agriculture experiment stations that would be under the auspices of land-grant colleges and universities. A partnership among the various levels of government was established by the Smith-Level Act of 1914. The Cooperative Agriculture Extension service was charged to deliver the practical benefits of research to citizens through an extension service.

The development of science, technology, and economic growth in the United States was greatly infl... more The development of science, technology, and economic growth in the United States was greatly influenced by the scientific discoveries and university infrastructure within Europe during the colonial period. While it is difficult to pinpoint how or which specific elements of scientific and technical knowledge diffused across the Atlantic, certain milestone events can be dated and key individuals can be identified.

Review of Industrial Organization

Research, science, and technology parks are increasingly seen as a means to create dynamic cluste... more Research, science, and technology parks are increasingly seen as a means to create dynamic clusters that accelerate economic growth and international competitiveness through the transfer of knowledge and technology. As such, it is important to understand the academic literature related to research, science, and technology parks (hereafter R-S-T parks, or simply parks) because that literature, albeit embryonic, has had and will continue to frame public policies related to park formations and growth. The purpose of this chapter is thus to overview the extant academic literature on knowledge and technology transfer to and from parks, and to discuss its importance to public policy issues.

Perception and action describe the entrepreneur as a dynamic figure in economic activity. It foll... more Perception and action describe the entrepreneur as a dynamic figure in economic activity. It follows then that entrepreneurship entails a process that begins with perception and is completed with action. When it comes to places—meaning physical localities—rarely is it the case that the perception of opportunity and the ability to act on that perception are embodied in a single individual. This paper illustrates the strategic management of one place in particular, Research Triangle Park in central North Carolina. This history of Research Triangle Park suggests and that the early perception for the park, and the action to see it from “seed to harvest,” were the result of many individuals each exhibiting their own entrepreneurial ability. Thus, we introduce the notion of collective entrepreneurship, and we suggest that it might be a critical ingredient to a recipe for the successful strategic management of places.

Edith Penrose was one of the first scholars to point out that firms may need to rely on research ... more Edith Penrose was one of the first scholars to point out that firms may need to rely on research joint ventures (RJVs) to acquire access to resources that can help them achieve and sustain a competitive advantage. We estimate an econometric model of the propensity of firms to disclose their intension to engage in RJVs, in order to explain the recent precipitous decline in

An increase in strategic research partnerships (SRPs) involving U.S. firms and nonprofit organiza... more An increase in strategic research partnerships (SRPs) involving U.S. firms and nonprofit organizations could be due to more intense foreign competition and policies promoting collaborative research, such as the National Cooperative Research Act (NCRA). NCRA allows firms to file research joint ventures (RJVs) with the Justice Department and reduce their exposure to antitrust litigation. We estimate an econometric model of RJV filings and find an inverse relationship between proxies for global high-technology competition and RJVs. Structural stability tests indicate that the Commerce Department's Advanced Technology Program may have caused a structural shift in the propensity of firms to sponsor RJVs.

Science and Public Policy

Five important policy initiatives were promulgated in response to the slowdown in US productivity... more Five important policy initiatives were promulgated in response to the slowdown in US productivity in the early 1970s, and then again in the late 1970s and early 1980s. These initiatives included the Bayh–Dole Act of 1980, the Stevenson–Wydler Act of 1980, the Research and Experimentation Tax Credit Act of 1981, the Small Business Innovation and Development Act of 1982, and the National Cooperative Research Act of 1984. Scholars and policy-makers have long debated the direction and magnitude of impacts from these policies but empirical evidence remains modest, especially evidence of their aggregate effects. Our assessment of these policies is based on quantifying their collective impact on industrial investments in R&D in the post-productivity slowdown period. Our findings support the conclusion that the relative levels of industrial investments in R&D from 1980 onwards were significantly higher than before, ceteris paribus.

The Economics of Science and Technology, 2002

ABSTRACT For purposes of measurement, there are three fundamental dimensions of R&D. The ... more ABSTRACT For purposes of measurement, there are three fundamental dimensions of R&D. The first relates to the source of funding of R&D (who finances the investment), the second to the performance of R&D (who conducts the research and development), and the third to the character of use of R&D (whether the undertaking is of a basic or applied nature, or development). These three fundamental dimensions are not mutually exclusive.

The Economics of Science and Technology, 2002

ABSTRACT An integrated entrepreneurial process is illustrated in Figure 12.1. As in the earlier s... more ABSTRACT An integrated entrepreneurial process is illustrated in Figure 12.1. As in the earlier schematics in Figure 1.1 and Figure 3.3, the strategic direction of the firm and the competitive pressures that it faces motivate an entrepreneurial response. R&D activity is the primary resource that the firm relies upon to investigate the appropriate response and to act upon it.

The Economics of Science and Technology, 2002

ABSTRACT From an economic standpoint, the concept of innovation can be traced at least as far bac... more ABSTRACT From an economic standpoint, the concept of innovation can be traced at least as far back as the Physiocrats in France in the mid-1700s. Nicolas Baudeau (1910, p. 46) referred to a process guided by an active agent, which he called an entrepreneur, within a capitalistic system: Such is the goal of the grand productive enterprises: first to increase the harvest by two, three, four, ten times if possible; secondly to reduce the amount of labor employed and so reduce costs by a half, a third, a fourth, or a tenth, whatever possible.

The Economics of Science and Technology, 2002

ABSTRACT The history of the U.S. patent system dates to the authority given to Congress in the Co... more ABSTRACT The history of the U.S. patent system dates to the authority given to Congress in the Constitution of the United States. Article I, section 8 states: Congress shall have power ... to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries.

The Economics of Science and Technology, 2002

ABSTRACT Key inputs into the R&D process are scientists and engineers (S&E) worki... more ABSTRACT Key inputs into the R&D process are scientists and engineers (S&E) working in R&D laboratories. Because of the need for these individuals to be highly trained, one might conclude the relevant segment of that workforce consists of those who are doctoral trained.

The Journal of Technology Transfer

The Annals of Regional Science

US technology-based initiatives at the state level continue to emphasize regional economic develo... more US technology-based initiatives at the state level continue to emphasize regional economic development and job growth. Many are now also focused on green technologies. This paper describes one such green program, the North Carolina Green Business Fund. Based on an analysis of 24 funded R&D projects in 2008 and 2009, we find that 59 new full-time equivalent jobs were created in the short run through this program. We also find that those organizations that can attract greater additional financial support for their research generate more jobs. Lastly, we find that university involvement in these projects tempers job losses among projects discontinued early as well as job growth among those that commercialized their technologies. We cautiously offer, because of limited data, recommendations to states with similar programs to create structures to advise technology-based research organizations about sources of additional financial resources.

We present quantitative and qualitative evidence (field research) on university technology transf... more We present quantitative and qualitative evidence (field research) on university technology transfer offices (TTOs). These offices negotiate licensing agreements with firms to commercialize university-based technologies. A stochastic frontier production function framework is used to assess the relative productivity of 113 university TTOs. Our field research provided a useful reality check on the specification of the econometric model. The empirical findings imply that licensing activity is characterized by constant returns to scale. Environmental and institutional factors appear to explain some of the variation in TTO efficiency.

Small Business Economics, 2014

ABSTRACT This paper models the entrepreneurial process as both creation and discovery composed of... more ABSTRACT This paper models the entrepreneurial process as both creation and discovery composed of an iterative two-step process where entrepreneurs create social networks based on subjective expectations about the future effectiveness of those networks, and then choose the innovation to pursue and map a search process to discover how to bring the innovation to fruition. Critical to this process is the mix of strong ties and weak ties that make up social networks and the ability to carry forward the social capital embodied in such networks. The tendency of long-existing entrepreneurs to be less innovative can be explained using this model.

IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 2015