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Research paper thumbnail of Gender Differences in Altruistic Reputation: Are They Artifactual?

Develop Psychol, 1985

... Because they represent a cross section of altruistic activ-ities, the four domains were expec... more ... Because they represent a cross section of altruistic activ-ities, the four domains were expected to give rise to a normative sample of children's prosocial ... The tasks were administered to the children as a group in their classrooms by one female and one male graduate student. ...

Research paper thumbnail of Contributions of male and female guest and hosts to peer group entry

Research paper thumbnail of Shyness and Unsociability and Their Relations With Adjustment in Chinese and Canadian Children

Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 2015

The goal of this study was to examine relations between different forms of social withdrawal (shy... more The goal of this study was to examine relations between different forms of social withdrawal (shyness, unsociability) and indexes of adjustment in Chinese and Canadian children. Participants were fourth-to eighth-grade students in urban China (n = 787) and Canada (n = 1,033). Data on social withdrawal and adjustment were obtained from multiple sources, including peer nominations, child self-reports, teacher ratings, and school records. Multigroup tests indicated that relations between shyness and adjustment did not differ in Chinese and Canadian children. However, relations between unsociability and adjustment variables were significantly different across the countries, with unsociability more strongly associated with adjustment difficulties in China than in Canada. Results are discussed in terms of historical and cultural backgrounds related to values of group orientation and individuality.

Research paper thumbnail of The Role of the Group in Peer Group Entry

Research paper thumbnail of Gender-Differentiated Experience in the Peer Culture: Links to Intimacy in Preadolescence

Social Development, 2000

This study tested claims that gender differences in intimacy are attributable to genderdifferenti... more This study tested claims that gender differences in intimacy are attributable to genderdifferentiated experiences in the peer culture (i.e., male and female 'worlds'). Participants were 188 Canadian preadolescents (10-12 years, 106 girls) who completed questionnaires regarding the intimacy of their same-sex best friendship, intimate support received from peers, and two dimensions of culture-gender composition of the friendship network and participation in communal (i.e., intimacy-promoting) and agentic (intimacy-repressing) activities. Consistent with the 'two worlds' explanation (a) communal activity participation related positively and team sports negatively to same-sex friendship intimacy, but the latter only for boys, and (b) having other-sex friends predicted same-sex friendship intimacy for boys but not girls. The two worlds explanation, though supported, requires revision to accommodate findings that male and female preadolescents' activity participation overlapped considerably, intimate friendships were not limited to intimate contexts, agentic activities potentiated both agentic and communal goals, and peer cultural variables predicted intimacy better for boys than girls.

Research paper thumbnail of Relationships Among Children: Peer Relationships and Social Skills in Childhood

Research paper thumbnail of Explaining Friendship Formation and Friendship Stability: The Role of Children's and Friends' Aggression and Victimization

Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 2007

This study examined variation in friendship formation and friendship stability as a function of c... more This study examined variation in friendship formation and friendship stability as a function of children's and their friends' victimization, overt aggression, and relational aggression. Participants were 605 pre-and early adolescents in fifth through eighth grades (M age = 12.05) ...

Research paper thumbnail of A Context Perspective on Early Adolescents' Friendship Expectations

The Journal of Early Adolescence, 1992

Contextual underpinnings of early adolescents' friendship expectations were assessed ... more Contextual underpinnings of early adolescents' friendship expectations were assessed in this study. In private interviews, 67 10- to 12-year-old children (38 girls) described behavior they would like same-and opposite-sex friends to perform in five peer activities (academic, telephone conversations, watching TV/listening to music sports, games). Responses were coded using a modified version of the Bigelow and LaGaipa friendship expectation dimensions.

Research paper thumbnail of Social referencing as a function of information source: Mothers versus strangers

Infant Behavior and Development, 1985

Research paper thumbnail of Gender differences in altruistic reputation: Are they artifactual?

Developmental Psychology, 1985

... Because they represent a cross section of altruistic activ-ities, the four domains were expec... more ... Because they represent a cross section of altruistic activ-ities, the four domains were expected to give rise to a normative sample of children's prosocial ... The tasks were administered to the children as a group in their classrooms by one female and one male graduate student. ...

Research paper thumbnail of Teachers' acceptance of strategies for increasing students' achievement motivation

Contemporary Educational Psychology, 1991

Research paper thumbnail of The Psychological Functions of Preadolescent Peer Activities

Child Development, 1990

The psychological functions of preadolescent peer activities were assessed by examining activity-... more The psychological functions of preadolescent peer activities were assessed by examining activity-related prescriptions and prescriptions for peer behavior. 91 fifth- and sixth-grade children (48 girls) kept week-long diaries of important peer activities and liked and disliked behaviors performed by peers in the activities. 81 other fifth- and sixth-grade children (40 girls) rated the importance and prevalence of each activity and indicated which of several positive and negative behaviors they would most like or dislike to happen in 10 of the activities. Results indicate that collectively, the activities sampled serve 3 main functions based on their prescriptive and prescriptive behavioral profiles: (a) they provide a context for sociability, enhancement of relationships, and a sense of belonging; (b) they promote concern for achievements and integrity of the self; and (c) they provide opportunities for instruction and learning. Not all activities serve all functions, however, and children may require exposure to a variety of activities to accrue a full range of psychological experiences. The findings also illustrate the potential importance of activity-related information for discerning the meaning and evaluating the effectiveness of social behavior. The advantages of the methodology are discussed.

Research paper thumbnail of Why Does Children's Generosity Increase with Age: Susceptibility to Experimenter Influence or Altruism?

Child Development, 1985

This study evaluated whether age differences in children's generosity are due to increasi... more This study evaluated whether age differences in children's generosity are due to increasing altruistic motivation or increasing susceptibility to experimenter influence strategies. 282 first, third, and fifth graders voted on how to spend a gift of money under 1 of 5 instructional sets--3 levels of experimenter influence, peer influence, or no influence, or no influence. Voting choices (in increasing order of generosity according to experimenter-defined scoring weights) were splitting up the money equally among class members, buying something for their class, buying something for their school, or giving the money to poor children. Voting choices also were scored according to empirically derived weights based on rankings provided by an independent sample of 50 first, third, and fifth graders. Both scoring systems indicated that fifth graders were more generous than younger children, but only under high levels of experimenter demand, and peer influence did not increase children's generosity. Furthermore, first graders appeared more generous when the child-derived rather than the experimenter-derived scoring system was used. Thus generalizations regarding age differences in generosity observed in laboratory experiments may require qualification, specifying the degree and type of experimenter influence involved.

Research paper thumbnail of Age Differences in Support Processes in Conversations between Friends

Child Development, 1996

The purpose of this study was to examine age differences in the use and efiecUveness of social su... more The purpose of this study was to examine age differences in the use and efiecUveness of social support processes emitted dming conversations about real life negative events between preadolescent, adolescent, and adult friends. Age differences were found for 3 forms of support. Older supporters made more excuses arid engagisd in less distraction than preadoleseent supporters, and adult supporters validated rnore excuses than younger supporters. Talking to friends alleviated negative affect in subjects pf all ages, however factors predlctirig reductions in negative affect differed across age. Preadolescents felt better when friends distracted them from their problems, and adults felt better when friends helped them evade responsibility for their problems. Specific support processes did not predict affect changes for adolescents, but adolescent girls felt better after the conversation than adolescent boys. Results are explained in terms of age differences in self-vdlidation and intimacy peeds experience co-constructing reality and providing social support, and refinement of social Skills.

Research paper thumbnail of Peer Group Status as a Moderator of Group Influence on Children?s Deviant, Aggressive, and Prosocial Behavior

Child Development, 2007

This study examined variation in friendship formation and friendship stability as a function of c... more This study examined variation in friendship formation and friendship stability as a function of children's and their friends' victimization, overt aggression, and relational aggression. Participants were 605 pre-and early adolescents in fifth through eighth grades (M age = 12.05) assessed twice over a three-month period. Scores for stability and acquisition of same-sex reciprocated friendships were derived from unlimited friendship nominations. Peer nominations provided scores for child and friend victimization and aggression. Only victimized children experienced difficulty forming new friendships, evidence of their persistent social problems. Dissimilarity between friends on relational aggression (all children) and victimization (girls only) predicted friendship termination, however; overtly aggressive children had difficulty maintaining friendships regardless of their friends' aggression. These findings point to the importance of considering the relational context (characteristics of children and their friends) and gender when assessing friendship stability.

Research paper thumbnail of Effects of Friendship and Gender on Peer Group Entry

Child Development, 1996

Effects of hosts' conflicting motives (to win a game vs. to be a good friend) on peer gro... more Effects of hosts' conflicting motives (to win a game vs. to be a good friend) on peer group entry processes and outcomes were examined. Subjects were 68 triads (35 female) of 10-12-year-old predominantly White children. Two host friends played a game for a large prize that was forfeited for a smaller prize if the guest (a friend or nonfriend of both hosts) was included. Hosts admitted guest friends more often than nonfriends (44% vs. 26%), suggesting that friendship norms prescribe self-sacrifice. Hosts behaved similarly with guest friends and nonfriends, but guest friends were more active than nonfriends, reflecting freedom derived from friendship security. Female hosts admitted guests more often than male hosts (51% vs. 21%), consistent with communal and agentic gender role prescriptions for girls and boys, respectively. Results suggest that hosts' friendship obligations and psychological orientation affect their response to a newcomer in a group entry situation.

Research paper thumbnail of Contributions of Male and Female Guests and Hosts to Peer Group Entry

Research paper thumbnail of Personality and gender differences in friendship needs and experiences in preadolescence and young adulthood

International Journal of Behavioral Development, 2004

... and the discrepancy between com-munal needs and provisions should predict best friendship ...... more ... and the discrepancy between com-munal needs and provisions should predict best friendship ... All questionnaires were read aloud due to variable reading levels, response formats ... the other session, they completed the CFQ-Provisions, the Friendship Satisfaction Questionnaire ...

Research paper thumbnail of Gender Differences in Altruistic Reputation: Are They Artifactual?

Develop Psychol, 1985

... Because they represent a cross section of altruistic activ-ities, the four domains were expec... more ... Because they represent a cross section of altruistic activ-ities, the four domains were expected to give rise to a normative sample of children's prosocial ... The tasks were administered to the children as a group in their classrooms by one female and one male graduate student. ...

Research paper thumbnail of Contributions of male and female guest and hosts to peer group entry

Research paper thumbnail of Shyness and Unsociability and Their Relations With Adjustment in Chinese and Canadian Children

Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 2015

The goal of this study was to examine relations between different forms of social withdrawal (shy... more The goal of this study was to examine relations between different forms of social withdrawal (shyness, unsociability) and indexes of adjustment in Chinese and Canadian children. Participants were fourth-to eighth-grade students in urban China (n = 787) and Canada (n = 1,033). Data on social withdrawal and adjustment were obtained from multiple sources, including peer nominations, child self-reports, teacher ratings, and school records. Multigroup tests indicated that relations between shyness and adjustment did not differ in Chinese and Canadian children. However, relations between unsociability and adjustment variables were significantly different across the countries, with unsociability more strongly associated with adjustment difficulties in China than in Canada. Results are discussed in terms of historical and cultural backgrounds related to values of group orientation and individuality.

Research paper thumbnail of The Role of the Group in Peer Group Entry

Research paper thumbnail of Gender-Differentiated Experience in the Peer Culture: Links to Intimacy in Preadolescence

Social Development, 2000

This study tested claims that gender differences in intimacy are attributable to genderdifferenti... more This study tested claims that gender differences in intimacy are attributable to genderdifferentiated experiences in the peer culture (i.e., male and female 'worlds'). Participants were 188 Canadian preadolescents (10-12 years, 106 girls) who completed questionnaires regarding the intimacy of their same-sex best friendship, intimate support received from peers, and two dimensions of culture-gender composition of the friendship network and participation in communal (i.e., intimacy-promoting) and agentic (intimacy-repressing) activities. Consistent with the 'two worlds' explanation (a) communal activity participation related positively and team sports negatively to same-sex friendship intimacy, but the latter only for boys, and (b) having other-sex friends predicted same-sex friendship intimacy for boys but not girls. The two worlds explanation, though supported, requires revision to accommodate findings that male and female preadolescents' activity participation overlapped considerably, intimate friendships were not limited to intimate contexts, agentic activities potentiated both agentic and communal goals, and peer cultural variables predicted intimacy better for boys than girls.

Research paper thumbnail of Relationships Among Children: Peer Relationships and Social Skills in Childhood

Research paper thumbnail of Explaining Friendship Formation and Friendship Stability: The Role of Children's and Friends' Aggression and Victimization

Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 2007

This study examined variation in friendship formation and friendship stability as a function of c... more This study examined variation in friendship formation and friendship stability as a function of children's and their friends' victimization, overt aggression, and relational aggression. Participants were 605 pre-and early adolescents in fifth through eighth grades (M age = 12.05) ...

Research paper thumbnail of A Context Perspective on Early Adolescents' Friendship Expectations

The Journal of Early Adolescence, 1992

Contextual underpinnings of early adolescents' friendship expectations were assessed ... more Contextual underpinnings of early adolescents' friendship expectations were assessed in this study. In private interviews, 67 10- to 12-year-old children (38 girls) described behavior they would like same-and opposite-sex friends to perform in five peer activities (academic, telephone conversations, watching TV/listening to music sports, games). Responses were coded using a modified version of the Bigelow and LaGaipa friendship expectation dimensions.

Research paper thumbnail of Social referencing as a function of information source: Mothers versus strangers

Infant Behavior and Development, 1985

Research paper thumbnail of Gender differences in altruistic reputation: Are they artifactual?

Developmental Psychology, 1985

... Because they represent a cross section of altruistic activ-ities, the four domains were expec... more ... Because they represent a cross section of altruistic activ-ities, the four domains were expected to give rise to a normative sample of children's prosocial ... The tasks were administered to the children as a group in their classrooms by one female and one male graduate student. ...

Research paper thumbnail of Teachers' acceptance of strategies for increasing students' achievement motivation

Contemporary Educational Psychology, 1991

Research paper thumbnail of The Psychological Functions of Preadolescent Peer Activities

Child Development, 1990

The psychological functions of preadolescent peer activities were assessed by examining activity-... more The psychological functions of preadolescent peer activities were assessed by examining activity-related prescriptions and prescriptions for peer behavior. 91 fifth- and sixth-grade children (48 girls) kept week-long diaries of important peer activities and liked and disliked behaviors performed by peers in the activities. 81 other fifth- and sixth-grade children (40 girls) rated the importance and prevalence of each activity and indicated which of several positive and negative behaviors they would most like or dislike to happen in 10 of the activities. Results indicate that collectively, the activities sampled serve 3 main functions based on their prescriptive and prescriptive behavioral profiles: (a) they provide a context for sociability, enhancement of relationships, and a sense of belonging; (b) they promote concern for achievements and integrity of the self; and (c) they provide opportunities for instruction and learning. Not all activities serve all functions, however, and children may require exposure to a variety of activities to accrue a full range of psychological experiences. The findings also illustrate the potential importance of activity-related information for discerning the meaning and evaluating the effectiveness of social behavior. The advantages of the methodology are discussed.

Research paper thumbnail of Why Does Children's Generosity Increase with Age: Susceptibility to Experimenter Influence or Altruism?

Child Development, 1985

This study evaluated whether age differences in children's generosity are due to increasi... more This study evaluated whether age differences in children's generosity are due to increasing altruistic motivation or increasing susceptibility to experimenter influence strategies. 282 first, third, and fifth graders voted on how to spend a gift of money under 1 of 5 instructional sets--3 levels of experimenter influence, peer influence, or no influence, or no influence. Voting choices (in increasing order of generosity according to experimenter-defined scoring weights) were splitting up the money equally among class members, buying something for their class, buying something for their school, or giving the money to poor children. Voting choices also were scored according to empirically derived weights based on rankings provided by an independent sample of 50 first, third, and fifth graders. Both scoring systems indicated that fifth graders were more generous than younger children, but only under high levels of experimenter demand, and peer influence did not increase children's generosity. Furthermore, first graders appeared more generous when the child-derived rather than the experimenter-derived scoring system was used. Thus generalizations regarding age differences in generosity observed in laboratory experiments may require qualification, specifying the degree and type of experimenter influence involved.

Research paper thumbnail of Age Differences in Support Processes in Conversations between Friends

Child Development, 1996

The purpose of this study was to examine age differences in the use and efiecUveness of social su... more The purpose of this study was to examine age differences in the use and efiecUveness of social support processes emitted dming conversations about real life negative events between preadolescent, adolescent, and adult friends. Age differences were found for 3 forms of support. Older supporters made more excuses arid engagisd in less distraction than preadoleseent supporters, and adult supporters validated rnore excuses than younger supporters. Talking to friends alleviated negative affect in subjects pf all ages, however factors predlctirig reductions in negative affect differed across age. Preadolescents felt better when friends distracted them from their problems, and adults felt better when friends helped them evade responsibility for their problems. Specific support processes did not predict affect changes for adolescents, but adolescent girls felt better after the conversation than adolescent boys. Results are explained in terms of age differences in self-vdlidation and intimacy peeds experience co-constructing reality and providing social support, and refinement of social Skills.

Research paper thumbnail of Peer Group Status as a Moderator of Group Influence on Children?s Deviant, Aggressive, and Prosocial Behavior

Child Development, 2007

This study examined variation in friendship formation and friendship stability as a function of c... more This study examined variation in friendship formation and friendship stability as a function of children's and their friends' victimization, overt aggression, and relational aggression. Participants were 605 pre-and early adolescents in fifth through eighth grades (M age = 12.05) assessed twice over a three-month period. Scores for stability and acquisition of same-sex reciprocated friendships were derived from unlimited friendship nominations. Peer nominations provided scores for child and friend victimization and aggression. Only victimized children experienced difficulty forming new friendships, evidence of their persistent social problems. Dissimilarity between friends on relational aggression (all children) and victimization (girls only) predicted friendship termination, however; overtly aggressive children had difficulty maintaining friendships regardless of their friends' aggression. These findings point to the importance of considering the relational context (characteristics of children and their friends) and gender when assessing friendship stability.

Research paper thumbnail of Effects of Friendship and Gender on Peer Group Entry

Child Development, 1996

Effects of hosts' conflicting motives (to win a game vs. to be a good friend) on peer gro... more Effects of hosts' conflicting motives (to win a game vs. to be a good friend) on peer group entry processes and outcomes were examined. Subjects were 68 triads (35 female) of 10-12-year-old predominantly White children. Two host friends played a game for a large prize that was forfeited for a smaller prize if the guest (a friend or nonfriend of both hosts) was included. Hosts admitted guest friends more often than nonfriends (44% vs. 26%), suggesting that friendship norms prescribe self-sacrifice. Hosts behaved similarly with guest friends and nonfriends, but guest friends were more active than nonfriends, reflecting freedom derived from friendship security. Female hosts admitted guests more often than male hosts (51% vs. 21%), consistent with communal and agentic gender role prescriptions for girls and boys, respectively. Results suggest that hosts' friendship obligations and psychological orientation affect their response to a newcomer in a group entry situation.

Research paper thumbnail of Contributions of Male and Female Guests and Hosts to Peer Group Entry

Research paper thumbnail of Personality and gender differences in friendship needs and experiences in preadolescence and young adulthood

International Journal of Behavioral Development, 2004

... and the discrepancy between com-munal needs and provisions should predict best friendship ...... more ... and the discrepancy between com-munal needs and provisions should predict best friendship ... All questionnaires were read aloud due to variable reading levels, response formats ... the other session, they completed the CFQ-Provisions, the Friendship Satisfaction Questionnaire ...