Mathias Risse - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Mathias Risse

Moral Philosophy and Politics, 2014

Economic theory teaches that it is in every country's interest to trade. Trade is a voluntary act... more Economic theory teaches that it is in every country's interest to trade. Trade is a voluntary activity among consenting parties. On this view, considerations of justice have little bearing on trade, and political philosophers concerned with global justice should stay largely silent on trade. According to a very different view that has recently gained prominence, international trade can only occur before the background of an international market reliance practice shaped by states. Trade is a shared activity among states, and all participating states have in principle equal claims to gains from trade. Trade then becomes a central topic for political philosophers. Both views are problematic. A third view about the role of trade in a theory of global justice is then presented, which gives pride of place to a (non-Marxian) notion of exploitation. The other two views should be abandoned.

Politics, Philosophy & Economics, 2004

Left-libertarian theories of justice hold that agents are full self-owners and that natural resou... more Left-libertarian theories of justice hold that agents are full self-owners and that natural resources are owned in some egalitarian manner. Some philosophers find left-libertarianism promising because it seems that it coherently underwrites both some demands of material equality and some limits on the permissible means of promoting such equality. However, the main goal of this article is to argue that, as far as coherence is concerned, at least one formulation of left-libertarianism is in trouble. This formulation is that of Michael Otsuka, who published it first in a 1998 article, and now in his thought-provoking book Libertarianism Without Inequality. In a nutshell, my objection is that the set of reasons that support egalitarian ownership of natural resources as Otsuka understands it stand in a deep tension with the set of reasons that would prompt one to endorse Otsuka’s right to self-ownership. In light of their underlying commitments, a defender of either of the views that lef...

The scope of Aumann's (1976) Agreement Theorem is needlessly limited by its restriction to C... more The scope of Aumann's (1976) Agreement Theorem is needlessly limited by its restriction to Conditioning as the update rule. Here we prove the theorem in a more comprehensive framework, in which the evolution of probabilities is represented directly, without deriving new probabilities from new certainties. The framework allows arbitrary up- date rules subject only to Goldstein's (1983) requirement that current expectations agree with current expectations of future expectations.

Global Justice : Theory Practice Rhetoric, 2017

This paper considers the trend towards megaregionalism (TTIP, TPP) that became prominent in the t... more This paper considers the trend towards megaregionalism (TTIP, TPP) that became prominent in the trade domain in the last years of the Obama administration. While megaregionalism has fallen by the wayside since Trump’s inauguration, the underlying rationale for such treaties will most likely reassert itself rather soon. So there are structural issues that need to be discussed from a standpoint of global justice. In all likelihood, megaregionalism is detrimental to global justice. TTIP in particular, or anything like it, might derail any possibility for a trade organization to aid the pursuit of justice at the global level, and any possibility that trade will be used to that end. From the standpoint of global justice one must hope that megaregionalism does not replace WTO multilateralism. The global-justice framework used here is the grounds-of-justice approach offered in the author’s 2012 On Global Justice.

SSRN Electronic Journal, 1998

Discussions over the years with John Broome, Claude d'Aspremont, Philippe Mongin, and John Roemer... more Discussions over the years with John Broome, Claude d'Aspremont, Philippe Mongin, and John Roemer on the subject of Harsanyi's theorem have been particularly useful in preparing this article. Our research has been generously supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

The Journal of Ethics, 2005

The Millennium Goals (to be reached by 2015) are: to cut in half the proportion of people living ... more The Millennium Goals (to be reached by 2015) are: to cut in half the proportion of people living in extreme poverty; to achieve universal primary education and gender equality in education; to accomplish a three-fourths decline in maternal mortality and a two-thirds decline in mortality among children under five; to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS and to assist AIDS orphans; to improve the lives of 100 million slum dwellers. Cf. U.N.

Ethics & International Affairs, 2005

A central theme throughout Thomas Pogge's pathbreakingWorld Poverty and Human Rightsis that t... more A central theme throughout Thomas Pogge's pathbreakingWorld Poverty and Human Rightsis that the global political and economic orderharmspeople in developing countries, and that our duty toward the global poor is therefore not to assist them but torectify injustice. But does the global orderharmthe poor? I argue elsewhere that there is a sense in which this is indeed so, at least if a certain empirical thesis is accepted. In this essay, however, I seek to show that the global order not only does not harm the poor but can plausibly be credited with the considerable improvements in human well-being that have been achieved over the last 200 years. Much of what Pogge says about our duties toward developing countries is therefore false.

Social Theory and Practice, 2006

In a little-known 1677 essay by Leibniz, two diplomats wonder about the status of world without s... more In a little-known 1677 essay by Leibniz, two diplomats wonder about the status of world without states. Most people remain citizens of the same state throughout their lives. This is not to disregard emigrants, asylum seekers, dual citizens, refugees, and stateless persons, but their numbers are comparatively small. 2 This is also not to disregard states that cannot effectively control their territory, whose boundaries are disputed, which are not widely recognized, or whose autonomy is compromised. 3 Still, the world's political system is a system of states. Most of the major political upheavals of the 20 th century have created more states, and therefore their number has only recently reached its maximum to date. Historians disagree about why states arose. Spruyt (1994), for one, argues that territorial states, alongside city-leagues and city-states, emerged in response to economic changes in the Late Middle Ages. "States won because their institutional logic gave them an advantage in mobilizing their societies' resources" (p 185). Promoting an opposing view, Tilly (1990) claims that states succeeded because France and Spain adopted forms of warfare that temporarily crushed their neighbors and introduced a political model others were compelled to adopt (p 183). But be all that as it may, states have arisen in response to particular conditions, and they may disappear in response to such conditions, no matter how familiar we have become with a political reality shaped by states. Among the circumstances favoring states, Zacher (1992) stresses the importance of the following: first, the cost/benefit ratio of the use of force made the costs of periodic resort to war tolerable and promoted autarky; second, low physical externalities among states caused little transboundary

Boston College Law Review, 2012

The two traditional ways of thinking about justice at the global level either limit the applicabi... more The two traditional ways of thinking about justice at the global level either limit the applicability of justice to states or else extend it to all human beings. The view I defend rejects both these approaches and instead recognizes different considerations or conditions based on which individuals are in the scope of different principles of justice. Finding a philosophically convincing alternative to those approaches strikes me as the most demanding and important challenge contemporary political philosophy faces (one that in turn reflects the significance of the political issues that are at stake). My own view, and thus my attempt at meeting this challenge, acknowledges the existence of multiple grounds of justice. This book seeks to present a foundational theory that makes it plausible that there could be multiple grounds of justice and to defend a specific view of the grounds that I call pluralist internationalism. Pluralist Internationalism grants particular normative relevance t...

Journal of Political Philosophy, 2004

Unless otherwise noted, references to Waldron are to Waldron (1999); Waldron (1996) contains the ... more Unless otherwise noted, references to Waldron are to Waldron (1999); Waldron (1996) contains the argument from respect. May's theorem appears in May (1952). I talk about “options” to refer to anything the group may decide on. I refer to Waldron's defense of ...

Ethics & International Affairs

In July 2019, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo launched a Commission on Unalienable Rights, charged... more In July 2019, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo launched a Commission on Unalienable Rights, charged with a reexamination of the scope and nature of human rights–based claims. From his statements, it seems that Pompeo hopes the commission will substantiate—by appeal to the U.S. Declaration of Independence and to natural law theory—three key conservative ideas: (1) that there is too much human rights proliferation, and once we get things right, social and economic rights as well as gender emancipation and reproductive rights will no longer register as human rights; (2) that religious liberties should be strengthened under the human rights umbrella; and (3) that the unalienable rights that should guide American foreign policy neither need nor benefit from any international oversight. I aim to show that despite Pompeo's framing, the Declaration of Independence, per se, is of no help with any of this, whereas evoking natural law is only helpful in ways that reveal its own limitations a...

Ethics & International Affairs

What are the implications of artificial intelligence (AI) on human rights in the next three decad... more What are the implications of artificial intelligence (AI) on human rights in the next three decades? Precise answers to this question are made difficult by the rapid rate of innovation in AI research and by the effects of human practices on the adaption of new technologies. Precise answers are also challenged by imprecise usages of the term “AI.” There are several types of research that all fall under this general term. We begin by clarifying what we mean by AI. Most of our attention is then focused on the implications of artificial general intelligence (AGI), which entail that an algorithm or group of algorithms will achieve something like superintelligence. While acknowledging that the feasibility of superintelligence is contested, we consider the moral and ethical implications of such a potential development. What do machines owe humans and what do humans owe superintelligent machines?

SSRN Electronic Journal

His work primarily addresses questions of global justice ranging from human rights, inequality, t... more His work primarily addresses questions of global justice ranging from human rights, inequality, taxation, trade and immigration to climate change, obligations to future generations and the future of technology. In addition to the Harvard Kennedy School, he teaches in Harvard College and the Harvard Extension School, and he is affiliated with the Harvard philosophy department. Risse is the author of On Global Justice and Global Political Philosophy, as well as two other forthcoming books.

Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences

Analyse & Kritik

The notion of Leitkultur has been used in German immigration debates to capture the idea that our... more The notion of Leitkultur has been used in German immigration debates to capture the idea that our living arrangements ought to be shaped by shared cultural identity. Leitkultur contrasts with a multiculturalism that sees multiple cultures side-by-side on equal terms. We should replace Leitkultur with Orientierungskultur, a notionwhose introduction is overdue. German philosophy, especially Kant, has bestowed an intellectual meaning upon an originally geographical notion that is already ubiquitous, making ‘Orientierungskultur’ a natural construct. That notion allows us to say there is an inevitably amorphous but recognizable German culture whose prominence in public life provides a grounding for many and prevents them from feeling alienated from the society they helped build; at the same time, for some domains of public life not participating in default behavior is not merely tolerated but acknowledged as a genuine alternative. Crucially, one way of orienting oneself is to turn away.

Nietzsche-Studien

1.1 Ressentiment plays a crucial role in each treatise in Nietzsche's Genealogy. In the first... more 1.1 Ressentiment plays a crucial role in each treatise in Nietzsche's Genealogy. In the first treatise Nietzsche claims that the slave revolt in morality occurs when ressentiment becomes creative. In the second he offers an account of the development of guilt, a process to which ...

Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 2001

Throughout the Politics, Aristotle discusses claims to the supreme authority (to kyrion) in a pol... more Throughout the Politics, Aristotle discusses claims to the supreme authority (to kyrion) in a polis. Some claims are made on qualitative grounds, and here Aristotle mentions freedom, wealth, education, good birth, military power, and virtue (1268a21-23, 1279a40-b5, 1283a16-18, 1283bl, 1294a20, 1296b18, 1301a39-1301b4). Other claims are made on quantitative grounds (1296b17), and here Aristotle refers to the superior numbers of the multitude (1296b19). Since he takes all these claims seriously and since several parties may claim power on different grounds, quarrels (amphisbētēsis, 1283b3, also 1283a24) are to be expected. As opposed to this, in the ideal polis all claims are made by the same group. Claims on qualitative grounds make us inquire about possible bearers of such qualities. For example, is a claim on account of wealth, a claim on behalf of wealthy individuals, or may it also be an argument on behalf of groups none of whose members qualifies, but which qualifies as a group ...

Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 2013

Nobody has offered such a comprehensive philosophical approach to trade. Nonetheless, James's... more Nobody has offered such a comprehensive philosophical approach to trade. Nonetheless, James's approach does not succeed. First, we explore James's constructivist method, which does less work than he suggests. The second topic is James's take on the different ‘grounds’ of justice. We explore the shortcomings of approaches that focus exclusively on trade. Our third topic is why James thinks trade is such a ground. The fourth topic is how James argues for his proposed ‘structural equity.’ This proposal remains under-argued. Our fifth topic is to explore why structural equity would generate several specific principles. Finally, we discuss James's notion of autarky. Autarky sets the benchmark for James's ideas about how to divide gains of trade. We doubt that it can do so.

ABSTRACT: Suppose we have a group of Bayesian agents, and suppose that they would like for their ... more ABSTRACT: Suppose we have a group of Bayesian agents, and suppose that they would like for their group as a whole to be a Bayesian agent as well. Moreover, suppose that those agents want the probabilities and utilities attached to this group agent to be aggregated from the individual probabilities and utilities in reasonable ways. Two ways of aggregating their

Concerns about fairness leave champions of free trade puzzled. First, to some, talk about fairnes... more Concerns about fairness leave champions of free trade puzzled. First, to some, talk about fairness in trade is conceptually muddled. Ideas of fairness seem tied to the image of “leveling the playing field” and thus concerned with equalizing background conditions, whereas trade thrives on differences. So how could ideas about “leveling” even apply to trade in the first place? Second,

Moral Philosophy and Politics, 2014

Economic theory teaches that it is in every country's interest to trade. Trade is a voluntary act... more Economic theory teaches that it is in every country's interest to trade. Trade is a voluntary activity among consenting parties. On this view, considerations of justice have little bearing on trade, and political philosophers concerned with global justice should stay largely silent on trade. According to a very different view that has recently gained prominence, international trade can only occur before the background of an international market reliance practice shaped by states. Trade is a shared activity among states, and all participating states have in principle equal claims to gains from trade. Trade then becomes a central topic for political philosophers. Both views are problematic. A third view about the role of trade in a theory of global justice is then presented, which gives pride of place to a (non-Marxian) notion of exploitation. The other two views should be abandoned.

Politics, Philosophy & Economics, 2004

Left-libertarian theories of justice hold that agents are full self-owners and that natural resou... more Left-libertarian theories of justice hold that agents are full self-owners and that natural resources are owned in some egalitarian manner. Some philosophers find left-libertarianism promising because it seems that it coherently underwrites both some demands of material equality and some limits on the permissible means of promoting such equality. However, the main goal of this article is to argue that, as far as coherence is concerned, at least one formulation of left-libertarianism is in trouble. This formulation is that of Michael Otsuka, who published it first in a 1998 article, and now in his thought-provoking book Libertarianism Without Inequality. In a nutshell, my objection is that the set of reasons that support egalitarian ownership of natural resources as Otsuka understands it stand in a deep tension with the set of reasons that would prompt one to endorse Otsuka’s right to self-ownership. In light of their underlying commitments, a defender of either of the views that lef...

The scope of Aumann's (1976) Agreement Theorem is needlessly limited by its restriction to C... more The scope of Aumann's (1976) Agreement Theorem is needlessly limited by its restriction to Conditioning as the update rule. Here we prove the theorem in a more comprehensive framework, in which the evolution of probabilities is represented directly, without deriving new probabilities from new certainties. The framework allows arbitrary up- date rules subject only to Goldstein's (1983) requirement that current expectations agree with current expectations of future expectations.

Global Justice : Theory Practice Rhetoric, 2017

This paper considers the trend towards megaregionalism (TTIP, TPP) that became prominent in the t... more This paper considers the trend towards megaregionalism (TTIP, TPP) that became prominent in the trade domain in the last years of the Obama administration. While megaregionalism has fallen by the wayside since Trump’s inauguration, the underlying rationale for such treaties will most likely reassert itself rather soon. So there are structural issues that need to be discussed from a standpoint of global justice. In all likelihood, megaregionalism is detrimental to global justice. TTIP in particular, or anything like it, might derail any possibility for a trade organization to aid the pursuit of justice at the global level, and any possibility that trade will be used to that end. From the standpoint of global justice one must hope that megaregionalism does not replace WTO multilateralism. The global-justice framework used here is the grounds-of-justice approach offered in the author’s 2012 On Global Justice.

SSRN Electronic Journal, 1998

Discussions over the years with John Broome, Claude d'Aspremont, Philippe Mongin, and John Roemer... more Discussions over the years with John Broome, Claude d'Aspremont, Philippe Mongin, and John Roemer on the subject of Harsanyi's theorem have been particularly useful in preparing this article. Our research has been generously supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

The Journal of Ethics, 2005

The Millennium Goals (to be reached by 2015) are: to cut in half the proportion of people living ... more The Millennium Goals (to be reached by 2015) are: to cut in half the proportion of people living in extreme poverty; to achieve universal primary education and gender equality in education; to accomplish a three-fourths decline in maternal mortality and a two-thirds decline in mortality among children under five; to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS and to assist AIDS orphans; to improve the lives of 100 million slum dwellers. Cf. U.N.

Ethics & International Affairs, 2005

A central theme throughout Thomas Pogge's pathbreakingWorld Poverty and Human Rightsis that t... more A central theme throughout Thomas Pogge's pathbreakingWorld Poverty and Human Rightsis that the global political and economic orderharmspeople in developing countries, and that our duty toward the global poor is therefore not to assist them but torectify injustice. But does the global orderharmthe poor? I argue elsewhere that there is a sense in which this is indeed so, at least if a certain empirical thesis is accepted. In this essay, however, I seek to show that the global order not only does not harm the poor but can plausibly be credited with the considerable improvements in human well-being that have been achieved over the last 200 years. Much of what Pogge says about our duties toward developing countries is therefore false.

Social Theory and Practice, 2006

In a little-known 1677 essay by Leibniz, two diplomats wonder about the status of world without s... more In a little-known 1677 essay by Leibniz, two diplomats wonder about the status of world without states. Most people remain citizens of the same state throughout their lives. This is not to disregard emigrants, asylum seekers, dual citizens, refugees, and stateless persons, but their numbers are comparatively small. 2 This is also not to disregard states that cannot effectively control their territory, whose boundaries are disputed, which are not widely recognized, or whose autonomy is compromised. 3 Still, the world's political system is a system of states. Most of the major political upheavals of the 20 th century have created more states, and therefore their number has only recently reached its maximum to date. Historians disagree about why states arose. Spruyt (1994), for one, argues that territorial states, alongside city-leagues and city-states, emerged in response to economic changes in the Late Middle Ages. "States won because their institutional logic gave them an advantage in mobilizing their societies' resources" (p 185). Promoting an opposing view, Tilly (1990) claims that states succeeded because France and Spain adopted forms of warfare that temporarily crushed their neighbors and introduced a political model others were compelled to adopt (p 183). But be all that as it may, states have arisen in response to particular conditions, and they may disappear in response to such conditions, no matter how familiar we have become with a political reality shaped by states. Among the circumstances favoring states, Zacher (1992) stresses the importance of the following: first, the cost/benefit ratio of the use of force made the costs of periodic resort to war tolerable and promoted autarky; second, low physical externalities among states caused little transboundary

Boston College Law Review, 2012

The two traditional ways of thinking about justice at the global level either limit the applicabi... more The two traditional ways of thinking about justice at the global level either limit the applicability of justice to states or else extend it to all human beings. The view I defend rejects both these approaches and instead recognizes different considerations or conditions based on which individuals are in the scope of different principles of justice. Finding a philosophically convincing alternative to those approaches strikes me as the most demanding and important challenge contemporary political philosophy faces (one that in turn reflects the significance of the political issues that are at stake). My own view, and thus my attempt at meeting this challenge, acknowledges the existence of multiple grounds of justice. This book seeks to present a foundational theory that makes it plausible that there could be multiple grounds of justice and to defend a specific view of the grounds that I call pluralist internationalism. Pluralist Internationalism grants particular normative relevance t...

Journal of Political Philosophy, 2004

Unless otherwise noted, references to Waldron are to Waldron (1999); Waldron (1996) contains the ... more Unless otherwise noted, references to Waldron are to Waldron (1999); Waldron (1996) contains the argument from respect. May's theorem appears in May (1952). I talk about “options” to refer to anything the group may decide on. I refer to Waldron's defense of ...

Ethics & International Affairs

In July 2019, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo launched a Commission on Unalienable Rights, charged... more In July 2019, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo launched a Commission on Unalienable Rights, charged with a reexamination of the scope and nature of human rights–based claims. From his statements, it seems that Pompeo hopes the commission will substantiate—by appeal to the U.S. Declaration of Independence and to natural law theory—three key conservative ideas: (1) that there is too much human rights proliferation, and once we get things right, social and economic rights as well as gender emancipation and reproductive rights will no longer register as human rights; (2) that religious liberties should be strengthened under the human rights umbrella; and (3) that the unalienable rights that should guide American foreign policy neither need nor benefit from any international oversight. I aim to show that despite Pompeo's framing, the Declaration of Independence, per se, is of no help with any of this, whereas evoking natural law is only helpful in ways that reveal its own limitations a...

Ethics & International Affairs

What are the implications of artificial intelligence (AI) on human rights in the next three decad... more What are the implications of artificial intelligence (AI) on human rights in the next three decades? Precise answers to this question are made difficult by the rapid rate of innovation in AI research and by the effects of human practices on the adaption of new technologies. Precise answers are also challenged by imprecise usages of the term “AI.” There are several types of research that all fall under this general term. We begin by clarifying what we mean by AI. Most of our attention is then focused on the implications of artificial general intelligence (AGI), which entail that an algorithm or group of algorithms will achieve something like superintelligence. While acknowledging that the feasibility of superintelligence is contested, we consider the moral and ethical implications of such a potential development. What do machines owe humans and what do humans owe superintelligent machines?

SSRN Electronic Journal

His work primarily addresses questions of global justice ranging from human rights, inequality, t... more His work primarily addresses questions of global justice ranging from human rights, inequality, taxation, trade and immigration to climate change, obligations to future generations and the future of technology. In addition to the Harvard Kennedy School, he teaches in Harvard College and the Harvard Extension School, and he is affiliated with the Harvard philosophy department. Risse is the author of On Global Justice and Global Political Philosophy, as well as two other forthcoming books.

Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences

Analyse & Kritik

The notion of Leitkultur has been used in German immigration debates to capture the idea that our... more The notion of Leitkultur has been used in German immigration debates to capture the idea that our living arrangements ought to be shaped by shared cultural identity. Leitkultur contrasts with a multiculturalism that sees multiple cultures side-by-side on equal terms. We should replace Leitkultur with Orientierungskultur, a notionwhose introduction is overdue. German philosophy, especially Kant, has bestowed an intellectual meaning upon an originally geographical notion that is already ubiquitous, making ‘Orientierungskultur’ a natural construct. That notion allows us to say there is an inevitably amorphous but recognizable German culture whose prominence in public life provides a grounding for many and prevents them from feeling alienated from the society they helped build; at the same time, for some domains of public life not participating in default behavior is not merely tolerated but acknowledged as a genuine alternative. Crucially, one way of orienting oneself is to turn away.

Nietzsche-Studien

1.1 Ressentiment plays a crucial role in each treatise in Nietzsche's Genealogy. In the first... more 1.1 Ressentiment plays a crucial role in each treatise in Nietzsche's Genealogy. In the first treatise Nietzsche claims that the slave revolt in morality occurs when ressentiment becomes creative. In the second he offers an account of the development of guilt, a process to which ...

Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 2001

Throughout the Politics, Aristotle discusses claims to the supreme authority (to kyrion) in a pol... more Throughout the Politics, Aristotle discusses claims to the supreme authority (to kyrion) in a polis. Some claims are made on qualitative grounds, and here Aristotle mentions freedom, wealth, education, good birth, military power, and virtue (1268a21-23, 1279a40-b5, 1283a16-18, 1283bl, 1294a20, 1296b18, 1301a39-1301b4). Other claims are made on quantitative grounds (1296b17), and here Aristotle refers to the superior numbers of the multitude (1296b19). Since he takes all these claims seriously and since several parties may claim power on different grounds, quarrels (amphisbētēsis, 1283b3, also 1283a24) are to be expected. As opposed to this, in the ideal polis all claims are made by the same group. Claims on qualitative grounds make us inquire about possible bearers of such qualities. For example, is a claim on account of wealth, a claim on behalf of wealthy individuals, or may it also be an argument on behalf of groups none of whose members qualifies, but which qualifies as a group ...

Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 2013

Nobody has offered such a comprehensive philosophical approach to trade. Nonetheless, James's... more Nobody has offered such a comprehensive philosophical approach to trade. Nonetheless, James's approach does not succeed. First, we explore James's constructivist method, which does less work than he suggests. The second topic is James's take on the different ‘grounds’ of justice. We explore the shortcomings of approaches that focus exclusively on trade. Our third topic is why James thinks trade is such a ground. The fourth topic is how James argues for his proposed ‘structural equity.’ This proposal remains under-argued. Our fifth topic is to explore why structural equity would generate several specific principles. Finally, we discuss James's notion of autarky. Autarky sets the benchmark for James's ideas about how to divide gains of trade. We doubt that it can do so.

ABSTRACT: Suppose we have a group of Bayesian agents, and suppose that they would like for their ... more ABSTRACT: Suppose we have a group of Bayesian agents, and suppose that they would like for their group as a whole to be a Bayesian agent as well. Moreover, suppose that those agents want the probabilities and utilities attached to this group agent to be aggregated from the individual probabilities and utilities in reasonable ways. Two ways of aggregating their

Concerns about fairness leave champions of free trade puzzled. First, to some, talk about fairnes... more Concerns about fairness leave champions of free trade puzzled. First, to some, talk about fairness in trade is conceptually muddled. Ideas of fairness seem tied to the image of “leveling the playing field” and thus concerned with equalizing background conditions, whereas trade thrives on differences. So how could ideas about “leveling” even apply to trade in the first place? Second,