Machteld Van Den Broek - Profile on Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by Machteld Van Den Broek
J Power Sources, 2010
We examine efficiency, costs and greenhouse gas emissions of current and future electric cars (EV... more We examine efficiency, costs and greenhouse gas emissions of current and future electric cars (EV), including the impact from charging EV on electricity demand and infrastructure for generation and distribution.Uncoordinated charging would increase national peak load by 7% at 30% penetration rate of EV and household peak load by 54%, which may exceed the capacity of existing electricity distribution infrastructure. At 30% penetration of EV, off-peak charging would result in a 20% higher, more stable base load and no additional peak load at the national level and up to 7% higher peak load at the household level. Therefore, if off-peak charging is successfully introduced, electric driving need not require additional generation capacity, even in case of 100% switch to electric vehicles.GHG emissions from electric driving depend most on the fuel type (coal or natural gas) used in the generation of electricity for charging, and range between 0 g km−1 (using renewables) and 155 g km−1 (using electricity from an old coal-based plant). Based on the generation capacity projected for the Netherlands in 2015, electricity for EV charging would largely be generated using natural gas, emitting 35–77 g CO2 eq km−1.We find that total cost of ownership (TCO) of current EV are uncompetitive with regular cars and series hybrid cars by more than 800 € year−1. TCO of future wheel motor PHEV may become competitive when batteries cost 400 € kWh−1, even without tax incentives, as long as one battery pack can last for the lifespan of the vehicle. However, TCO of future battery powered cars is at least 25% higher than of series hybrid or regular cars. This cost gap remains unless cost of batteries drops to 150 € kWh−1 in the future. Variations in driving cost from charging patterns have negligible influence on TCO.GHG abatement costs using plug-in hybrid cars are currently 400–1400 € tonne−1 CO2 eq and may come down to −100 to 300 € tonne−1. Abatement cost using battery powered cars are currently above 1900 € tonne−1 and are not projected to drop below 300–800 € tonne−1.
Uncertainty in the deployment of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): A sensitivity analysis to techno-economic parameter uncertainty
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2014
ABSTRACT Projections of the deployment of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technologies vary cons... more ABSTRACT Projections of the deployment of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technologies vary considerably. Cumulative emission reductions by CCS until 2100 vary in the majority of projections of the IPCC-TAR scenarios from 220 to 2200 GtCO2. This variation is a result of uncertainty in key determinants of the baselines of different models, such as, technological development (IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage. Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York). Technological key parameters of CCS deployment are power plant efficiency and investment cost, capture cost, transport cost and storage capacity. This study provides insights in how uncertain the key parameters are and how this influences CCS deployment projections. For each parameter, ranges are determined on the basis of the existing literature. CCS deployment is systematically assessed for all of these parameter ranges in a global energy system model (TIMER). The results show that investment cost uncertainty causes the largest range in cumulative CO2 captured from global electricity production (13–176 GtCO2 in 2050) in a scenario with a medium fossil fuel price level. The smallest, but still significant range of 65–91 GtCO2 cumulatively captured until 2050, is caused by the uncertainty in the efficiency of the power plant and capture unit.
Socio-economic impacts of future electricity generation scenarios in Europe: Potential costs and benefits of using CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS)
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2015
Least-cost options for integrating intermittent renewables in low-carbon power systems
Applied Energy, 2016
The potential of renewables versus natural gas with CO2 capture and storage for power generation under CO2 constraints
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2015
Techno-economic performance and spatial footprint of infrastructure configurations for large scale CO2 capture in industrial zones
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2015
ABSTRACT This study developed a method to assess the techno-economic performance and spatial foot... more ABSTRACT This study developed a method to assess the techno-economic performance and spatial footprint of CO2 capture infrastructure configurations in industrial zones. The method has been successfully applied to a cluster of sixteen industrial plants in the Dutch industrial Botlek area (7.1 MtCO2/y) for 2020–2030. The configurations differ inter alia regarding capture technology (post-, pre-, oxyfuel combustion) and location of capture components (centralized vs. plant site). Results indicate that oxyfuel combustion with centralized oxygen production and decentralized CO2 compression is the most cost effective and realistic configuration when applying CO2 capture to all industrial plants (61€/tCO2; 5.8 MtCO2/y avoided), mainly due to relatively low energy costs compared to post- and pre-combustion. However, oxyfuel combustion at plant level is economically preferable when capturing CO2 from only the three largest industrial plants. For post-combustion, a separated absorber-stripper configuration (73€/tCO2; 7.1 MtCO2/y avoided) is preferable from a cost perspective, due to economic scale effects of capture equipment. The optimal pre-combustion configuration shows a slightly less favorable performance (81€/tCO2; 4.4 MtCO2/y avoided). Whereas many industrial plants have insufficient space available for capture equipment, centralized/hybrid configurations show no insurmountable space issues. The deployment of the most favorable configurations is addressed in Part B.
Cost-effective balance between CO2 vessel and pipeline transport. Part I – Impact of optimally sized vessels and fleets
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2015
Operational flexibility and economics of power plants in future low-carbon power systems
Applied Energy, 2015
Method for identifying drivers, barriers and synergies related to the deployment of a CO2 pipeline network
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2015
Energy Procedia, 2013
The future deployment of carbon capture and storage (CCS) is uncertain. This may be caused by dif... more The future deployment of carbon capture and storage (CCS) is uncertain. This may be caused by differences in assumptions about techno-economic parameters such as CO 2 storage cost and capacity. How much of the uncertainty in these variables translates into uncertainty in the deployment predictions of CCS is investigated using the TIMER model. Preliminary results show that storage cost variations result in a considerable range of global cumulative CO 2 captured until 2050 from electricity production of about 46-162 GtCO 2 . Also, the regional impacts of storage costs differ strongly. Decreasing the storage capacity decreases global cumulative capture from power production by only -3 GtCO 2 until 2050.
The MARKAL-TIMES integrated Morocco-Portugal-Spain energy system and CCS spatial allocation model
Endereços eletrônicos: M.A.vandenBroek@uu.nl; C.A.Ramirez@uu.nl
Benefits of coal-fired power generation with flexible CCS in a future northwest European power system with large scale wind power
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2014
ABSTRACT Coal-fired power generation with carbon capture and storage (CCS) is projected as a cost... more ABSTRACT Coal-fired power generation with carbon capture and storage (CCS) is projected as a cost-effective technology to decarbonize the power sector. Intermittent renewables could reduce its load factor and revenues, so flexible capture unit operation strategies (flexible CCS) have been suggested to increase profits: CO2 venting and lean- and rich-solvent storage. In this study we quantify the benefits of flexible CCS for both the power plant operator and the total Dutch power system. We use a unit commitment and dispatch model of the northwest European electricity system to simulate the hourly operation of two coal-fired power plants with flexible CCS in 2020 and 2030. We find that flexible capture unit operation hardly affects electricity generation (revenues) because the flexible operation capabilities are not often utilized. CO2 venting is hardly used due to high CO2 prices (43 €/tCO2 in 2020 and 112 €/tCO2 in 2030). The impact of rich-solvent storage is limited because of regeneration constraints of the base-load power plant. The main benefit of flexible CCS is an increase in reserve capacity provision by the power plant of 20–300% compared to non-flexible operation.
Energy Procedia, 2009
Large-scale implementation of carbon capture and storage needs a whole new infrastructure to tran... more Large-scale implementation of carbon capture and storage needs a whole new infrastructure to transport and store CO 2 . Tools that can support planning and designing of such infrastructure require incorporation of both temporal and spatial aspects. Therefore, a toolbox that integrates ArcGIS, a geographical information system with elaborate spatial and routing functions, and MARKAL, an energy bottom-up model based on linear opt imization has been developed. Application of this toolbox for devising blueprint s of a CO 2 infrastructure in the Netherlands, shows that early knowledge on the availability , potential, and suitability of sinks is of major importance for a cost -effective design of the infrastructure.
Energy Procedia, 2011
The deployment of large scale CO 2 Capture and Storage (CCS) may depend largely on the emissions ... more The deployment of large scale CO 2 Capture and Storage (CCS) may depend largely on the emissions price resulting from a greenhouse gas emission trading system. However, it is unknown whether such a trading system leads to a sufficient high CO 2 price and stable investment environment for CCS deployment. To gain more knowledge, we soft-linked WorldScan, an applied general equilibrium model for global policy analysis, with MARKAL-NL-UU, a techno-economic energy bottom-up model of the Dutch power generation sector and CO 2 intensive industry. Results from WorldScan show that CO 2 prices in 2020 could vary between 20 €/tCO 2 in a GRAND COALITION scenario, in which all countries accept greenhouse gas targets from 2020, to 47 €/tCO 2 in an IMPASSE scenario, in which EU-27 continues its one-sided emission trading system without the possibility to use the Clean Development Mechanism. Results from MARKAL-NL-UU show that an emission trading system in combination with uncertainty does not advance the application of CCS in an early stage, the rates at which different CO 2 abatement technologies (including CCS) develop are less crucial for introduction of CCS than the CO 2 price development, and the combination of biomass (co-)firing and CCS seems an important option to realise deep CO 2 emission reductions.
CCS Infrastructure Development Scenarios for the Integrated Iberian Peninsula and Morocco Energy System
Energy Procedia, 2013
Planning CCS Development in the West Mediterranean
Energy Procedia, 2013
Technological Learning in the Energy Sector, 2010
We performed a consistent comparison of state-of-the-art and advanced electricity and hydrogen pr... more We performed a consistent comparison of state-of-the-art and advanced electricity and hydrogen production technologies with CO 2 capture using coal and natural gas, inspired by the large number of studies, of which the results can in fact not be compared due to specific assumptions made. After literature review, a standardisation and selection exercise has been performed to get figures on conversion efficiency, energy production costs and CO 2 avoidance costs of different technologies, the main parameters for comparison. On the short term, electricity can be produced with 85-90% CO 2 capture by means of NGCC and PC with chemical absorption and IGCC with physical absorption at 4.7-6.9 Vct/kWh, assuming a coal and natural gas price of 1.7 and 4.7 V/GJ. CO 2 avoidance costs are between 15 and 50 V/t CO 2 for IGCC and NGCC, respectively. On the longer term, both improvements in existing conversion and capture technologies are foreseen as well as new power cycles integrating advanced turbines, fuel cells and novel (high-temperature) separation technologies. Electricity production costs might be reduced to 4.5-5.3 Vct/kWh with advanced technologies. However, no clear ranking can be made due to large uncertainties pertaining to investment and O&M costs. Hydrogen production is more attractive for low-cost CO 2 capture than electricity production. Costs of large-scale hydrogen production by means of steam methane reforming and coal gasification with CO 2 capture from the shifted syngas are estimated at 9.5 and 7 V/GJ, respectively. Advanced autothermal reforming and coal gasification deploying ion transport membranes might further reduce production costs to 8.1 and 6.4 V/GJ. Membrane reformers enable small-scale hydrogen production at nearly 17 V/GJ with relatively low-cost CO 2 capture. q
Energy Procedia, 2013
This paper presents results of potential CCS infrastructures in the West Mediterranean region inc... more This paper presents results of potential CCS infrastructures in the West Mediterranean region including trajectories for CO 2 pipelines. The preliminary results are generated with a combination of geographical (GIS) and partial equilibrium optimization modelling (MARKAL/TIMES-COMET). Furthermore, as a result of active stakeholder involvement in the research project, the CCS infrastructures were critically reviewed and obtained insights were used to improve the models and their input parameters. Stakeholders´ feedback regarding difficulty in crossing hard rock terrains and the reasonability of trying to replicate the existing natural gas network, had a large impact on the resulting CCS infrastructure.
A Comparison of national CCS strategies for Northwest Europe, with a focus on the potential of common CO2 storage at the Utsira formation
Energy Procedia, 2011
Mega structures for CO2 storage, such as the Utsira formation in the North Sea, could theoretical... more Mega structures for CO2 storage, such as the Utsira formation in the North Sea, could theoretically supply CO2 storage capacity for several countries for a period of several decades. Their use could increase the cost-effectiveness of CCS in a region while minimizing opposition from the public to CO2 storage. However, this will not only depend on their potential available capacity
J Power Sources, 2010
We examine efficiency, costs and greenhouse gas emissions of current and future electric cars (EV... more We examine efficiency, costs and greenhouse gas emissions of current and future electric cars (EV), including the impact from charging EV on electricity demand and infrastructure for generation and distribution.Uncoordinated charging would increase national peak load by 7% at 30% penetration rate of EV and household peak load by 54%, which may exceed the capacity of existing electricity distribution infrastructure. At 30% penetration of EV, off-peak charging would result in a 20% higher, more stable base load and no additional peak load at the national level and up to 7% higher peak load at the household level. Therefore, if off-peak charging is successfully introduced, electric driving need not require additional generation capacity, even in case of 100% switch to electric vehicles.GHG emissions from electric driving depend most on the fuel type (coal or natural gas) used in the generation of electricity for charging, and range between 0 g km−1 (using renewables) and 155 g km−1 (using electricity from an old coal-based plant). Based on the generation capacity projected for the Netherlands in 2015, electricity for EV charging would largely be generated using natural gas, emitting 35–77 g CO2 eq km−1.We find that total cost of ownership (TCO) of current EV are uncompetitive with regular cars and series hybrid cars by more than 800 € year−1. TCO of future wheel motor PHEV may become competitive when batteries cost 400 € kWh−1, even without tax incentives, as long as one battery pack can last for the lifespan of the vehicle. However, TCO of future battery powered cars is at least 25% higher than of series hybrid or regular cars. This cost gap remains unless cost of batteries drops to 150 € kWh−1 in the future. Variations in driving cost from charging patterns have negligible influence on TCO.GHG abatement costs using plug-in hybrid cars are currently 400–1400 € tonne−1 CO2 eq and may come down to −100 to 300 € tonne−1. Abatement cost using battery powered cars are currently above 1900 € tonne−1 and are not projected to drop below 300–800 € tonne−1.
Uncertainty in the deployment of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): A sensitivity analysis to techno-economic parameter uncertainty
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2014
ABSTRACT Projections of the deployment of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technologies vary cons... more ABSTRACT Projections of the deployment of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technologies vary considerably. Cumulative emission reductions by CCS until 2100 vary in the majority of projections of the IPCC-TAR scenarios from 220 to 2200 GtCO2. This variation is a result of uncertainty in key determinants of the baselines of different models, such as, technological development (IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage. Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York). Technological key parameters of CCS deployment are power plant efficiency and investment cost, capture cost, transport cost and storage capacity. This study provides insights in how uncertain the key parameters are and how this influences CCS deployment projections. For each parameter, ranges are determined on the basis of the existing literature. CCS deployment is systematically assessed for all of these parameter ranges in a global energy system model (TIMER). The results show that investment cost uncertainty causes the largest range in cumulative CO2 captured from global electricity production (13–176 GtCO2 in 2050) in a scenario with a medium fossil fuel price level. The smallest, but still significant range of 65–91 GtCO2 cumulatively captured until 2050, is caused by the uncertainty in the efficiency of the power plant and capture unit.
Socio-economic impacts of future electricity generation scenarios in Europe: Potential costs and benefits of using CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS)
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2015
Least-cost options for integrating intermittent renewables in low-carbon power systems
Applied Energy, 2016
The potential of renewables versus natural gas with CO2 capture and storage for power generation under CO2 constraints
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2015
Techno-economic performance and spatial footprint of infrastructure configurations for large scale CO2 capture in industrial zones
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2015
ABSTRACT This study developed a method to assess the techno-economic performance and spatial foot... more ABSTRACT This study developed a method to assess the techno-economic performance and spatial footprint of CO2 capture infrastructure configurations in industrial zones. The method has been successfully applied to a cluster of sixteen industrial plants in the Dutch industrial Botlek area (7.1 MtCO2/y) for 2020–2030. The configurations differ inter alia regarding capture technology (post-, pre-, oxyfuel combustion) and location of capture components (centralized vs. plant site). Results indicate that oxyfuel combustion with centralized oxygen production and decentralized CO2 compression is the most cost effective and realistic configuration when applying CO2 capture to all industrial plants (61€/tCO2; 5.8 MtCO2/y avoided), mainly due to relatively low energy costs compared to post- and pre-combustion. However, oxyfuel combustion at plant level is economically preferable when capturing CO2 from only the three largest industrial plants. For post-combustion, a separated absorber-stripper configuration (73€/tCO2; 7.1 MtCO2/y avoided) is preferable from a cost perspective, due to economic scale effects of capture equipment. The optimal pre-combustion configuration shows a slightly less favorable performance (81€/tCO2; 4.4 MtCO2/y avoided). Whereas many industrial plants have insufficient space available for capture equipment, centralized/hybrid configurations show no insurmountable space issues. The deployment of the most favorable configurations is addressed in Part B.
Cost-effective balance between CO2 vessel and pipeline transport. Part I – Impact of optimally sized vessels and fleets
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2015
Operational flexibility and economics of power plants in future low-carbon power systems
Applied Energy, 2015
Method for identifying drivers, barriers and synergies related to the deployment of a CO2 pipeline network
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2015
Energy Procedia, 2013
The future deployment of carbon capture and storage (CCS) is uncertain. This may be caused by dif... more The future deployment of carbon capture and storage (CCS) is uncertain. This may be caused by differences in assumptions about techno-economic parameters such as CO 2 storage cost and capacity. How much of the uncertainty in these variables translates into uncertainty in the deployment predictions of CCS is investigated using the TIMER model. Preliminary results show that storage cost variations result in a considerable range of global cumulative CO 2 captured until 2050 from electricity production of about 46-162 GtCO 2 . Also, the regional impacts of storage costs differ strongly. Decreasing the storage capacity decreases global cumulative capture from power production by only -3 GtCO 2 until 2050.
The MARKAL-TIMES integrated Morocco-Portugal-Spain energy system and CCS spatial allocation model
Endereços eletrônicos: M.A.vandenBroek@uu.nl; C.A.Ramirez@uu.nl
Benefits of coal-fired power generation with flexible CCS in a future northwest European power system with large scale wind power
International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 2014
ABSTRACT Coal-fired power generation with carbon capture and storage (CCS) is projected as a cost... more ABSTRACT Coal-fired power generation with carbon capture and storage (CCS) is projected as a cost-effective technology to decarbonize the power sector. Intermittent renewables could reduce its load factor and revenues, so flexible capture unit operation strategies (flexible CCS) have been suggested to increase profits: CO2 venting and lean- and rich-solvent storage. In this study we quantify the benefits of flexible CCS for both the power plant operator and the total Dutch power system. We use a unit commitment and dispatch model of the northwest European electricity system to simulate the hourly operation of two coal-fired power plants with flexible CCS in 2020 and 2030. We find that flexible capture unit operation hardly affects electricity generation (revenues) because the flexible operation capabilities are not often utilized. CO2 venting is hardly used due to high CO2 prices (43 €/tCO2 in 2020 and 112 €/tCO2 in 2030). The impact of rich-solvent storage is limited because of regeneration constraints of the base-load power plant. The main benefit of flexible CCS is an increase in reserve capacity provision by the power plant of 20–300% compared to non-flexible operation.
Energy Procedia, 2009
Large-scale implementation of carbon capture and storage needs a whole new infrastructure to tran... more Large-scale implementation of carbon capture and storage needs a whole new infrastructure to transport and store CO 2 . Tools that can support planning and designing of such infrastructure require incorporation of both temporal and spatial aspects. Therefore, a toolbox that integrates ArcGIS, a geographical information system with elaborate spatial and routing functions, and MARKAL, an energy bottom-up model based on linear opt imization has been developed. Application of this toolbox for devising blueprint s of a CO 2 infrastructure in the Netherlands, shows that early knowledge on the availability , potential, and suitability of sinks is of major importance for a cost -effective design of the infrastructure.
Energy Procedia, 2011
The deployment of large scale CO 2 Capture and Storage (CCS) may depend largely on the emissions ... more The deployment of large scale CO 2 Capture and Storage (CCS) may depend largely on the emissions price resulting from a greenhouse gas emission trading system. However, it is unknown whether such a trading system leads to a sufficient high CO 2 price and stable investment environment for CCS deployment. To gain more knowledge, we soft-linked WorldScan, an applied general equilibrium model for global policy analysis, with MARKAL-NL-UU, a techno-economic energy bottom-up model of the Dutch power generation sector and CO 2 intensive industry. Results from WorldScan show that CO 2 prices in 2020 could vary between 20 €/tCO 2 in a GRAND COALITION scenario, in which all countries accept greenhouse gas targets from 2020, to 47 €/tCO 2 in an IMPASSE scenario, in which EU-27 continues its one-sided emission trading system without the possibility to use the Clean Development Mechanism. Results from MARKAL-NL-UU show that an emission trading system in combination with uncertainty does not advance the application of CCS in an early stage, the rates at which different CO 2 abatement technologies (including CCS) develop are less crucial for introduction of CCS than the CO 2 price development, and the combination of biomass (co-)firing and CCS seems an important option to realise deep CO 2 emission reductions.
CCS Infrastructure Development Scenarios for the Integrated Iberian Peninsula and Morocco Energy System
Energy Procedia, 2013
Planning CCS Development in the West Mediterranean
Energy Procedia, 2013
Technological Learning in the Energy Sector, 2010
We performed a consistent comparison of state-of-the-art and advanced electricity and hydrogen pr... more We performed a consistent comparison of state-of-the-art and advanced electricity and hydrogen production technologies with CO 2 capture using coal and natural gas, inspired by the large number of studies, of which the results can in fact not be compared due to specific assumptions made. After literature review, a standardisation and selection exercise has been performed to get figures on conversion efficiency, energy production costs and CO 2 avoidance costs of different technologies, the main parameters for comparison. On the short term, electricity can be produced with 85-90% CO 2 capture by means of NGCC and PC with chemical absorption and IGCC with physical absorption at 4.7-6.9 Vct/kWh, assuming a coal and natural gas price of 1.7 and 4.7 V/GJ. CO 2 avoidance costs are between 15 and 50 V/t CO 2 for IGCC and NGCC, respectively. On the longer term, both improvements in existing conversion and capture technologies are foreseen as well as new power cycles integrating advanced turbines, fuel cells and novel (high-temperature) separation technologies. Electricity production costs might be reduced to 4.5-5.3 Vct/kWh with advanced technologies. However, no clear ranking can be made due to large uncertainties pertaining to investment and O&M costs. Hydrogen production is more attractive for low-cost CO 2 capture than electricity production. Costs of large-scale hydrogen production by means of steam methane reforming and coal gasification with CO 2 capture from the shifted syngas are estimated at 9.5 and 7 V/GJ, respectively. Advanced autothermal reforming and coal gasification deploying ion transport membranes might further reduce production costs to 8.1 and 6.4 V/GJ. Membrane reformers enable small-scale hydrogen production at nearly 17 V/GJ with relatively low-cost CO 2 capture. q
Energy Procedia, 2013
This paper presents results of potential CCS infrastructures in the West Mediterranean region inc... more This paper presents results of potential CCS infrastructures in the West Mediterranean region including trajectories for CO 2 pipelines. The preliminary results are generated with a combination of geographical (GIS) and partial equilibrium optimization modelling (MARKAL/TIMES-COMET). Furthermore, as a result of active stakeholder involvement in the research project, the CCS infrastructures were critically reviewed and obtained insights were used to improve the models and their input parameters. Stakeholders´ feedback regarding difficulty in crossing hard rock terrains and the reasonability of trying to replicate the existing natural gas network, had a large impact on the resulting CCS infrastructure.
A Comparison of national CCS strategies for Northwest Europe, with a focus on the potential of common CO2 storage at the Utsira formation
Energy Procedia, 2011
Mega structures for CO2 storage, such as the Utsira formation in the North Sea, could theoretical... more Mega structures for CO2 storage, such as the Utsira formation in the North Sea, could theoretically supply CO2 storage capacity for several countries for a period of several decades. Their use could increase the cost-effectiveness of CCS in a region while minimizing opposition from the public to CO2 storage. However, this will not only depend on their potential available capacity