Shelly McGrath - Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by Shelly McGrath
Aggression and Violent Behavior, Nov 1, 2011
This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the a... more This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution and sharing with colleagues. Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party websites are prohibited. In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or institutional repository. Authors requiring further information regarding Elsevier's archiving and manuscript policies are encouraged to visit: http://www.elsevier.com/copyright
College Students' Alcohol and Substance Use: Religiosity as a Protective Factor
Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, Dec 1, 2019
Individual-Level Predictors of Perceived Safety: Data from an International Sample
Sociological focus, Aug 1, 2011
ABSTRACT This article compares individual characteristics of people residing in different global ... more ABSTRACT This article compares individual characteristics of people residing in different global regions and how they affect a person's perceived risk of victimization. Prior research has extensively explored perceived risk of victimization, but few studies have been able to research the issue crossnationally. The International Crime Victimization Survey data are used to explore perceived risk of victimization among those who reside in different global regions. This study explores the individual-level characteristics to determine whether this set of variables explains a person's perception of risk while out after dark. Results of the ordered logistic analysis show that gender, age, living in an urban residence, having previously been a victim, and socioeconomic status affect perceived risk but that effects differ by global region.
Sociology of Sport Journal, Jun 1, 2009
Based on participant observation and in-depth interviews with 10 college-level female bodybuilder... more Based on participant observation and in-depth interviews with 10 college-level female bodybuilders, this paper focuses on several aspects of female bodybuilding that are underexplored in existing literature, including purposeful gender transgressions, gender attribution, racialized bodies, and the conflation of sex, gender, and sexual preference. We draw on critical feminist theory and the social constructionist perspective to enhance collective understanding of the subversive possibilities emerging from female bodybuilders' lived experience. Collectively, female bodybuilders' experiences affect somatic and behavioral gender norms in a wider Western-type industrialized society such as the United States.
The Provision of Support and Advocacy for Rural Victims
Routledge eBooks, Nov 30, 2022
Journal of Community Psychology, Jun 4, 2012
This article re-centers an ecological model traditionally used to understand the experiences of i... more This article re-centers an ecological model traditionally used to understand the experiences of interpersonal violence victims around the perceptions and experiences of victim advocates. We suggest that the development of such a model might shed light on rural-urban differences in the accessibility and availability of support services in rural domains. To develop this model, we used results from a sample of rural advocates located within the Mississippi Delta Region. The study indicates that rural victim advocates recognize the presence of significant macrosystem and exosystem factors in their communities and experience them as creating greater challenges to their work. In particular, factors affiliated with economic disadvantage and cultural ideologies of individualism and victim blaming negatively affected the experiences of the respondents. In terms of the ecological model, results also indicate correlations across levels of analysis, implying a rural macrosystem milieu that may predict or affect the presence of exosystem support networks.
The Effect of Victimization Severity on Perceived Risk of Victimization: Analyses Using an International Sample
Victims & offenders, Nov 18, 2016
ABSTRACT In this article, we explored the effect of prior victimization severity on perceived ris... more ABSTRACT In this article, we explored the effect of prior victimization severity on perceived risk using a cross-national sample. We extracted data for all variables from the International Criminal Victimization Survey (ICVS) and the European Survey on Crime Safety (EU ICS). Using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression for both pooled data and individual countries, we found that, in addition to numerous control and prior victimization variables, our key independent variable—perceived severity of victimization—generally influences levels of perceived risk. Discussion of the results and limitations of the study are also included.
Does utilization of victim services programs influence individuals’ fear of crime? Findings from the National Crime Victimization Survey
Sociological Spectrum
Selected abstracts from the 48th Annual Mid-South Sociological Association meetings in Nashville, TN, October 12–15, 2022
Sociological Spectrum
The Opioid Crisis: Prevalence and Markets of Opioids
PubMed, 2022
The US opioid crisis came in three waves - prescription opioids, heroin, and illicitly manufactur... more The US opioid crisis came in three waves - prescription opioids, heroin, and illicitly manufactured fentanyls - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Centers for Disease Control and Prevention resulting in the deaths of nearly 500,000 people from 1996 to 2019. In 2009, drug overdose deaths exceeded those involving automobiles. Opioid overdose deaths contributed to the decrease in life expectancy for Americans from 78.8 to 78.5 during 2014 to 2017. The overprescribing of a schedule II prescription opioid was escalated by pharmaceutical companies promoting a growing belief that pain was an undertreated condition. In 2012, the number of opioid prescriptions peaked at 255 million and deaths exceeded 11,000 per year. The typical prescription opioid abuser was white, male, and 45-55 years of age. The hardest-hit states were in Appalachia and the Northeast. When an abuse-resistant formulation was introduced for OxyContin, the most prevalent prescription opioid, users turned to heroin. From the early 1980s, a new pizza delivery style of Mexican trafficking in black tar heroin infiltrated many of the same states hit hardest by prescription opioids. Heroin overdose deaths reached 14,495 in 2017. As heroin abuse increased in states supplied with black tar heroin, fentanyl-contaminated white powder heroin began to appear in the Northeast. Fentanyl was quickly followed by fentanyl analogs. While heroin deaths continued to escalate through 2017, they were soon overshadowed by fentanyl overdose deaths. Finally, prescription opioid and heroin overdose deaths started to decline in 2017, though fentanyl deaths continued to increase. In late 2019, it appeared that restrictions on transportation and travel due to the COVID-19 pandemic had resulted in decreased availability of illicit drugs, but by 2020 drug abuse had escalated in many countries. Globally, heroin was the primary opioid of abuse and only a few countries - including Canada, Germany, Austria, and Belgium - have experienced a significant increase in prescription opioids. However, illicitly manufactured fentanyls are a growing problem in North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia.
The Provision of Support and Advocacy for Rural Victims
Routledge eBooks, Nov 30, 2022
Victim Experience in Court
The Encyclopedia of Women and Crime
College Students' Alcohol and Substance Use: Religiosity as a Protective Factor
Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 2019
The Effects of Police Effort on Victims’ Fear of Crime
American Journal of Criminal Justice, 2020
In this study, we sought to assess whether increased police effort subsequent to an individual’s ... more In this study, we sought to assess whether increased police effort subsequent to an individual’s criminal victimization has a significant effect on violent crime victims’ fear of crime. Extant literature shows somewhat incongruent findings with regard to whether and in what way general police actions and effort (police presence in a community, increased interactions with members of a community) have an effect on fear in communities. To date, there has been a gap in the literature concerning fear of crime of crime victims, and specific to our study, fear of crime related to police actions and efforts after victimization. The current study fills the gap by determining whether there is, indeed, a relationship between police effort and violent crime victims’ fear. Results show a positive relationship between police effort subsequent to victimization and violent crime victims’ fear. Discussion of the results and limitations of the study are included.
Aggression and Violent Behavior, 2011
This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the a... more This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution and sharing with colleagues. Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party websites are prohibited. In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or institutional repository. Authors requiring further information regarding Elsevier's archiving and manuscript policies are encouraged to visit: http://www.elsevier.com/copyright
International Crime Victimization Survey
The Encyclopedia of Women and Crime, 2019
Selected Abstracts from the 47th Annual Mid-South Sociological Association meetings in Charlotte, NC, October 21–23, 2021
Sociological Spectrum, 2022
Selected Abstracts from the 47th Annual Mid-South Sociological Association meetings in Charlotte,... more Selected Abstracts from the 47th Annual Mid-South Sociological Association meetings in Charlotte, NC, October 21–23, 2021 Tina Deshotels and Shelly A. McGrath Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, Alabama, USA; University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH (1) Examining the digital divide during the pandemic: a snapshot of the Southeastern United States Ryan Jackson Howard and Justin McPherson Troy University The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated an unprecedented shift to online educational instruction for American youth over the past 18 months. Given consistent documentation of a digital divide, which broadly refers to unequal access to both internet and internet-enabled devices across demographic groups, limited access to the tools necessary to support online learning presents a clear problem for households unable to support a student learning in a virtual format. To explore and examine the associations between the pandemic on the digital divide in the Southeast, we relied on 27 weeks of combined data from the Household Pulse Survey. We found notable differences in access to both computers and internet among respondents. Specifically, data indicate children in lower income households are less likely to always or usually have access to a computer or digital device for educational purposes, as well as internet access, than are those from higher income households. We also found evidence of a digital divide by race, although the differences were smaller than differences by household income. Although our data preclude associations with indicators of educational achievement, existing literature suggests the coinciding digital divide and shift to online instruction might exacerbate existing educational disparities for youth in the southeast. Afraid of what: predictors of fear of being victimized Stanley Henderson Samford University Fear has more power and influence over our lives than we may realize. People who are fearful of airplanes tend to drive when they travel. People that are afraid of drowning don’t go into deep waters. Fear shapes what policies we have distributed through government and impacts the extent people will go to make themselves feel safe. Using the 2018 General Social Survey I aimed to predict what leads people to be fearful in their own neighborhood. My hypothesis is that people with higher amounts of fear are also people who are white and live in more racially diverse areas. My dependent variable to measure respondents fear was if someone felt safe walking in their neighborhood at night. My independent variables are owning a gun, favor or opposing the death penalty, the amount of diversity in their neighborhood, and region. I controlled for race, gender, and family income. I will discuss key findings and implications of this research. 2022 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC SOCIOLOGICAL SPECTRUM 2022, VOL. 42, NO. S1, S1–S49 https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2022.2030647 Correctional officer perceptions of inmate mental health: correlations with job satisfaction, emotional labor, and work demands Maegan George and Meredith Huey Dye Middle Tennessee State University As an overlooked element of the criminal justice system, it is vital research addresses the increased interactions between mentally ill inmates and correctional officers. Most research on correctional officers focuses on individual factors, work environment factors, and organizational factors. There is a lack of research on the interactions between correctional officers and inmates, specifically interactions between correctional services and mentally ill inmates. This lapse can be addressed by examining the impact the perceptions of inmate mental health has on correctional officer job satisfaction and work demands. This research seeks to investigate the hypothesis that correctional officer’s job satisfaction and work demands are correlated with their perceptions and interactions with inmates. For example, officers with high levels of job satisfaction and low work demand will have a positive influence on inmates, specifically on their mental health. Alternatively, officers who hold positive perceptions of inmates will have higher levels of job satisfaction and lower work demands. To explore this hypothesis, I collected data from 187 current and former correctional officers using an online survey administered through Qualtrics. Officers were recruited through two Facebook groups. Results from this survey will be presented and the implications for research, policy, and practice will be discussed.
An Ecological Model of Barriers to Effective Intimate Partner Violence Victim Advocacy in Rural Counties
Despite the vast array of literature on Intimate Partner Violence little is known about IPV victi... more Despite the vast array of literature on Intimate Partner Violence little is known about IPV victim advocacy in rural areas. Research has found IPV to be just as prevalent in rural areas as it is in urban areas. However compared to urban environments additional constraints operate in ...
The Effect of Victimization Severity on Perceived Risk of Victimization: Analyses Using an International Sample
Victims & Offenders
ABSTRACT In this article, we explored the effect of prior victimization severity on perceived ris... more ABSTRACT In this article, we explored the effect of prior victimization severity on perceived risk using a cross-national sample. We extracted data for all variables from the International Criminal Victimization Survey (ICVS) and the European Survey on Crime Safety (EU ICS). Using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression for both pooled data and individual countries, we found that, in addition to numerous control and prior victimization variables, our key independent variable—perceived severity of victimization—generally influences levels of perceived risk. Discussion of the results and limitations of the study are also included.
Spatial Patterns of Homicide: Revitalization and Displacement of Low-Income Areas
Aggression and Violent Behavior, Nov 1, 2011
This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the a... more This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution and sharing with colleagues. Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party websites are prohibited. In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or institutional repository. Authors requiring further information regarding Elsevier's archiving and manuscript policies are encouraged to visit: http://www.elsevier.com/copyright
College Students' Alcohol and Substance Use: Religiosity as a Protective Factor
Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, Dec 1, 2019
Individual-Level Predictors of Perceived Safety: Data from an International Sample
Sociological focus, Aug 1, 2011
ABSTRACT This article compares individual characteristics of people residing in different global ... more ABSTRACT This article compares individual characteristics of people residing in different global regions and how they affect a person's perceived risk of victimization. Prior research has extensively explored perceived risk of victimization, but few studies have been able to research the issue crossnationally. The International Crime Victimization Survey data are used to explore perceived risk of victimization among those who reside in different global regions. This study explores the individual-level characteristics to determine whether this set of variables explains a person's perception of risk while out after dark. Results of the ordered logistic analysis show that gender, age, living in an urban residence, having previously been a victim, and socioeconomic status affect perceived risk but that effects differ by global region.
Sociology of Sport Journal, Jun 1, 2009
Based on participant observation and in-depth interviews with 10 college-level female bodybuilder... more Based on participant observation and in-depth interviews with 10 college-level female bodybuilders, this paper focuses on several aspects of female bodybuilding that are underexplored in existing literature, including purposeful gender transgressions, gender attribution, racialized bodies, and the conflation of sex, gender, and sexual preference. We draw on critical feminist theory and the social constructionist perspective to enhance collective understanding of the subversive possibilities emerging from female bodybuilders' lived experience. Collectively, female bodybuilders' experiences affect somatic and behavioral gender norms in a wider Western-type industrialized society such as the United States.
The Provision of Support and Advocacy for Rural Victims
Routledge eBooks, Nov 30, 2022
Journal of Community Psychology, Jun 4, 2012
This article re-centers an ecological model traditionally used to understand the experiences of i... more This article re-centers an ecological model traditionally used to understand the experiences of interpersonal violence victims around the perceptions and experiences of victim advocates. We suggest that the development of such a model might shed light on rural-urban differences in the accessibility and availability of support services in rural domains. To develop this model, we used results from a sample of rural advocates located within the Mississippi Delta Region. The study indicates that rural victim advocates recognize the presence of significant macrosystem and exosystem factors in their communities and experience them as creating greater challenges to their work. In particular, factors affiliated with economic disadvantage and cultural ideologies of individualism and victim blaming negatively affected the experiences of the respondents. In terms of the ecological model, results also indicate correlations across levels of analysis, implying a rural macrosystem milieu that may predict or affect the presence of exosystem support networks.
The Effect of Victimization Severity on Perceived Risk of Victimization: Analyses Using an International Sample
Victims & offenders, Nov 18, 2016
ABSTRACT In this article, we explored the effect of prior victimization severity on perceived ris... more ABSTRACT In this article, we explored the effect of prior victimization severity on perceived risk using a cross-national sample. We extracted data for all variables from the International Criminal Victimization Survey (ICVS) and the European Survey on Crime Safety (EU ICS). Using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression for both pooled data and individual countries, we found that, in addition to numerous control and prior victimization variables, our key independent variable—perceived severity of victimization—generally influences levels of perceived risk. Discussion of the results and limitations of the study are also included.
Does utilization of victim services programs influence individuals’ fear of crime? Findings from the National Crime Victimization Survey
Sociological Spectrum
Selected abstracts from the 48th Annual Mid-South Sociological Association meetings in Nashville, TN, October 12–15, 2022
Sociological Spectrum
The Opioid Crisis: Prevalence and Markets of Opioids
PubMed, 2022
The US opioid crisis came in three waves - prescription opioids, heroin, and illicitly manufactur... more The US opioid crisis came in three waves - prescription opioids, heroin, and illicitly manufactured fentanyls - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Centers for Disease Control and Prevention resulting in the deaths of nearly 500,000 people from 1996 to 2019. In 2009, drug overdose deaths exceeded those involving automobiles. Opioid overdose deaths contributed to the decrease in life expectancy for Americans from 78.8 to 78.5 during 2014 to 2017. The overprescribing of a schedule II prescription opioid was escalated by pharmaceutical companies promoting a growing belief that pain was an undertreated condition. In 2012, the number of opioid prescriptions peaked at 255 million and deaths exceeded 11,000 per year. The typical prescription opioid abuser was white, male, and 45-55 years of age. The hardest-hit states were in Appalachia and the Northeast. When an abuse-resistant formulation was introduced for OxyContin, the most prevalent prescription opioid, users turned to heroin. From the early 1980s, a new pizza delivery style of Mexican trafficking in black tar heroin infiltrated many of the same states hit hardest by prescription opioids. Heroin overdose deaths reached 14,495 in 2017. As heroin abuse increased in states supplied with black tar heroin, fentanyl-contaminated white powder heroin began to appear in the Northeast. Fentanyl was quickly followed by fentanyl analogs. While heroin deaths continued to escalate through 2017, they were soon overshadowed by fentanyl overdose deaths. Finally, prescription opioid and heroin overdose deaths started to decline in 2017, though fentanyl deaths continued to increase. In late 2019, it appeared that restrictions on transportation and travel due to the COVID-19 pandemic had resulted in decreased availability of illicit drugs, but by 2020 drug abuse had escalated in many countries. Globally, heroin was the primary opioid of abuse and only a few countries - including Canada, Germany, Austria, and Belgium - have experienced a significant increase in prescription opioids. However, illicitly manufactured fentanyls are a growing problem in North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia.
The Provision of Support and Advocacy for Rural Victims
Routledge eBooks, Nov 30, 2022
Victim Experience in Court
The Encyclopedia of Women and Crime
College Students' Alcohol and Substance Use: Religiosity as a Protective Factor
Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 2019
The Effects of Police Effort on Victims’ Fear of Crime
American Journal of Criminal Justice, 2020
In this study, we sought to assess whether increased police effort subsequent to an individual’s ... more In this study, we sought to assess whether increased police effort subsequent to an individual’s criminal victimization has a significant effect on violent crime victims’ fear of crime. Extant literature shows somewhat incongruent findings with regard to whether and in what way general police actions and effort (police presence in a community, increased interactions with members of a community) have an effect on fear in communities. To date, there has been a gap in the literature concerning fear of crime of crime victims, and specific to our study, fear of crime related to police actions and efforts after victimization. The current study fills the gap by determining whether there is, indeed, a relationship between police effort and violent crime victims’ fear. Results show a positive relationship between police effort subsequent to victimization and violent crime victims’ fear. Discussion of the results and limitations of the study are included.
Aggression and Violent Behavior, 2011
This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the a... more This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution and sharing with colleagues. Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party websites are prohibited. In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or institutional repository. Authors requiring further information regarding Elsevier's archiving and manuscript policies are encouraged to visit: http://www.elsevier.com/copyright
International Crime Victimization Survey
The Encyclopedia of Women and Crime, 2019
Selected Abstracts from the 47th Annual Mid-South Sociological Association meetings in Charlotte, NC, October 21–23, 2021
Sociological Spectrum, 2022
Selected Abstracts from the 47th Annual Mid-South Sociological Association meetings in Charlotte,... more Selected Abstracts from the 47th Annual Mid-South Sociological Association meetings in Charlotte, NC, October 21–23, 2021 Tina Deshotels and Shelly A. McGrath Jacksonville State University, Jacksonville, Alabama, USA; University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH (1) Examining the digital divide during the pandemic: a snapshot of the Southeastern United States Ryan Jackson Howard and Justin McPherson Troy University The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated an unprecedented shift to online educational instruction for American youth over the past 18 months. Given consistent documentation of a digital divide, which broadly refers to unequal access to both internet and internet-enabled devices across demographic groups, limited access to the tools necessary to support online learning presents a clear problem for households unable to support a student learning in a virtual format. To explore and examine the associations between the pandemic on the digital divide in the Southeast, we relied on 27 weeks of combined data from the Household Pulse Survey. We found notable differences in access to both computers and internet among respondents. Specifically, data indicate children in lower income households are less likely to always or usually have access to a computer or digital device for educational purposes, as well as internet access, than are those from higher income households. We also found evidence of a digital divide by race, although the differences were smaller than differences by household income. Although our data preclude associations with indicators of educational achievement, existing literature suggests the coinciding digital divide and shift to online instruction might exacerbate existing educational disparities for youth in the southeast. Afraid of what: predictors of fear of being victimized Stanley Henderson Samford University Fear has more power and influence over our lives than we may realize. People who are fearful of airplanes tend to drive when they travel. People that are afraid of drowning don’t go into deep waters. Fear shapes what policies we have distributed through government and impacts the extent people will go to make themselves feel safe. Using the 2018 General Social Survey I aimed to predict what leads people to be fearful in their own neighborhood. My hypothesis is that people with higher amounts of fear are also people who are white and live in more racially diverse areas. My dependent variable to measure respondents fear was if someone felt safe walking in their neighborhood at night. My independent variables are owning a gun, favor or opposing the death penalty, the amount of diversity in their neighborhood, and region. I controlled for race, gender, and family income. I will discuss key findings and implications of this research. 2022 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC SOCIOLOGICAL SPECTRUM 2022, VOL. 42, NO. S1, S1–S49 https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2022.2030647 Correctional officer perceptions of inmate mental health: correlations with job satisfaction, emotional labor, and work demands Maegan George and Meredith Huey Dye Middle Tennessee State University As an overlooked element of the criminal justice system, it is vital research addresses the increased interactions between mentally ill inmates and correctional officers. Most research on correctional officers focuses on individual factors, work environment factors, and organizational factors. There is a lack of research on the interactions between correctional officers and inmates, specifically interactions between correctional services and mentally ill inmates. This lapse can be addressed by examining the impact the perceptions of inmate mental health has on correctional officer job satisfaction and work demands. This research seeks to investigate the hypothesis that correctional officer’s job satisfaction and work demands are correlated with their perceptions and interactions with inmates. For example, officers with high levels of job satisfaction and low work demand will have a positive influence on inmates, specifically on their mental health. Alternatively, officers who hold positive perceptions of inmates will have higher levels of job satisfaction and lower work demands. To explore this hypothesis, I collected data from 187 current and former correctional officers using an online survey administered through Qualtrics. Officers were recruited through two Facebook groups. Results from this survey will be presented and the implications for research, policy, and practice will be discussed.
An Ecological Model of Barriers to Effective Intimate Partner Violence Victim Advocacy in Rural Counties
Despite the vast array of literature on Intimate Partner Violence little is known about IPV victi... more Despite the vast array of literature on Intimate Partner Violence little is known about IPV victim advocacy in rural areas. Research has found IPV to be just as prevalent in rural areas as it is in urban areas. However compared to urban environments additional constraints operate in ...
The Effect of Victimization Severity on Perceived Risk of Victimization: Analyses Using an International Sample
Victims & Offenders
ABSTRACT In this article, we explored the effect of prior victimization severity on perceived ris... more ABSTRACT In this article, we explored the effect of prior victimization severity on perceived risk using a cross-national sample. We extracted data for all variables from the International Criminal Victimization Survey (ICVS) and the European Survey on Crime Safety (EU ICS). Using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression for both pooled data and individual countries, we found that, in addition to numerous control and prior victimization variables, our key independent variable—perceived severity of victimization—generally influences levels of perceived risk. Discussion of the results and limitations of the study are also included.
Spatial Patterns of Homicide: Revitalization and Displacement of Low-Income Areas