Michele Gelfand - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Michele Gelfand

In this article we advance a distinctly relational view of negotiation. We delineate the conditio... more In this article we advance a distinctly relational view of negotiation. We delineate the conditions through which relational self-construals (RSC) become accessible in negotiations and the conditions that inhibit their use, and we illustrate mechanisms through which RSC affects negotiation processes and outcomes. We introduce four relational dynamics - arelational trading, relational satisficing, relational distancing, and relational integrating - and discuss their consequences for the accumulation of economic and relational capital in negotiation.Nishii15_Negtotiating_Rationally.pdf: 324 downloads, before Oct. 1, 2020

PNAS Nexus

At the beginning of 2020, COVID-19 became a global problem. Despite all the efforts to emphasize ... more At the beginning of 2020, COVID-19 became a global problem. Despite all the efforts to emphasize the relevance of preventive measures, not everyone adhered to them. Thus, learning more about the characteristics determining attitudinal and behavioral responses to the pandemic is crucial to improving future interventions. In this study, we applied machine learning on the multi-national data collected by the International Collaboration on the Social and Moral Psychology of COVID-19 (N = 51,404) to test the predictive efficacy of constructs from social, moral, cognitive, and personality psychology, as well as socio-demographic factors, in the attitudinal and behavioral responses to the pandemic. The results point to several valuable insights. Internalized moral identity provided the most consistent predictive contribution—individuals perceiving moral traits as central to their self-concept reported higher adherence to preventive measures. Similar was found for morality as cooperation, s...

Nature Communications, 2021

Norm enforcement may be important for resolving conflicts and promoting cooperation. However, lit... more Norm enforcement may be important for resolving conflicts and promoting cooperation. However, little is known about how preferred responses to norm violations vary across cultures and across domains. In a preregistered study of 57 countries (using convenience samples of 22,863 students and non-students), we measured perceptions of the appropriateness of various responses to a violation of a cooperative norm and to atypical social behaviors. Our findings highlight both cultural universals and cultural variation. We find a universal negative relation between appropriateness ratings of norm violations and appropriateness ratings of responses in the form of confrontation, social ostracism and gossip. Moreover, we find the country variation in the appropriateness of sanctions to be consistent across different norm violations but not across different sanctions. Specifically, in those countries where use of physical confrontation and social ostracism is rated as less appropriate, gossip is...

Changing collective behaviour and supporting non-pharmaceutical interventions is an important com... more Changing collective behaviour and supporting non-pharmaceutical interventions is an important component in mitigating virus transmission during a pandemic. In a large international collaboration (Study 1, N = 49,968 across 67 countries), we investigated self-reported factors that associated with people reported adopting public health behaviours (e.g., spatial distancing and stricter hygiene) and endorsed public policy interventions (e.g., closing bars and restaurants) during the early stage of the pandemic (April-May 2020). Respondents who reported identifying more strongly with their nation consistently reported greater engagement in public health behaviours and support for public health policies. Results were similar for representative and non-representative national samples. Study 2 (N = 42 countries) conceptually replicated the central finding using aggregate indices of national identity (obtained using the World Values Survey) and a measure of actual behaviour change during the...

Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 2019

Negotiation scholars generally model agreement as the terminal "endpoint" of the process. From th... more Negotiation scholars generally model agreement as the terminal "endpoint" of the process. From this perspective, parties instantaneously realize their outcomes when agreement is reached. Although this conception may also reflect the understanding of some negotiators (those with what we call a "fixed agreement" mindset), we argue that others actually envision agreement as one step in an ongoing process (what we call a "fluid agreement" mindset). To spur research on this topic, we report initial progress on development of a new measure of agreement fluidity. Basic psychometric properties for this measure were established using six correlational samples that demonstrate aspects of both discriminant and convergent validity. Fixed agreement mindset appears to predict important behaviors during and after the negotiation process. Contracts are set all the time for projects, but once projects begin, the scope may change based on uncovered information. There are discussions on re-scoping the statement of work and expected fees. This is true on both sides-either the resources may change on the client side, information is uncovered on either side, or there are changes to proposed methodology based on new information. (quote from a Study 5 participant) We went back to the contract and threatened to hold funds and payables from them. (quote from a Study 5 participant) These two quotes represent very different views of contracts. The first represents a view that we call a "fluid agreement" mindset; the second, a "fixed agreement" mindset. The first represents a view that negotiated agreements are quite likely to change due to everything from emergent information to changing economic conditions to unforeseen project delays. Change in the agreement is not surprising from this perspective, nor a source of worry. The second represents a view that negotiated agreements are meant to be honored as agreed upon that changes are indeed a source of worry-and possibly reflect a breach of integrity. There is not much tolerance for changing circumstances from this second perspective. This article introduces the concept of agreement fluidity mindset, introduces a scale to measure it, and explores its implications. The idea of agreement fluidity stands in contrast to most research on negotiation. In almost all negotiation studies (including work published by the authors), researchers focus on specific terms of the deal

Academy of Management Discoveries, 2016

Although previous research has linked hyperbolic discounting, an economic model of impatience, to... more Although previous research has linked hyperbolic discounting, an economic model of impatience, to negative outcomes such as smoking, problem drinking, lowered academic achievement, and ineffective career search decisions, there is little research that addresses how impatience may impact performance at the bargaining table and whether Americans have a disadvantage in negotiations as compared to other cultural groups as a result. Using the subjective line task AQ:1 , we replicate previous research showing that subjective time perceptions underpin hyperbolic discounting (Study 1a, n 5 101) and are related to estimations and perceptions of durations in a timed experiment and impatience in recalled

Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2015

We complement the dominant rational model of negotiation found in the West with a new honor model... more We complement the dominant rational model of negotiation found in the West with a new honor model of negotiation found in many Arabic-speaking populations and illustrate the linguistic processes that facilitate creativity in negotiation agreements in the United States and Egypt. Community samples (N = 136) were recruited in the United States and Egypt and negotiated an integrative bargaining task, Discount Marketplace. Analyses of categories of the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) and our own newly developed honor dictionary illustrate that the same language that predicts integrative agreements in the United States, namely, that which is rational and logical (cognitive mechanisms, LIWC), actually backfires and hinders agreements in Egypt. Creativity in Egypt, by contrast, reflects an honor model of negotiating with language that promotes honor gain (i.e., moral integrity) and honor protection (i.e., image and strength). Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology, 2011

An agent for training to manage diplomatic crises has recently been designed by Kraus et al. [200... more An agent for training to manage diplomatic crises has recently been designed by Kraus et al. [2008], but it was not evaluated by interacting with people of diverse cultural backgrounds.

Conducting multinational research: Applying organizational psychology in the workplace.

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 2010

Apologies are useful social tools that can act as catalysts in the resolution of conflict and ins... more Apologies are useful social tools that can act as catalysts in the resolution of conflict and inspire forgiveness. Yet as numerous real-world blunders attest, apologies are not always effective. Whereas many lead to forgiveness and reconciliation, others simply fall on deaf ears. Despite the fact that apologies differ in their effectiveness, most research has focused on apologies as dichotomous phenomena wherein a victim either (a) receives an apology or (b) does not. Psychological research has yet to elucidate which components of apologies are most effective, and for whom. The present research begins to address this gap by testing the theory that perpetrators' apologies are most likely to inspire victim forgiveness when their components align with victims' self-construals. Regression and hierarchical linear modeling analyses from two studies support the primary hypotheses. As predicted, victims reacted most positively to apologies that were congruent with their self-construals.

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 2010

Although scholars and practitioners have repeatedly touted the importance of negotiating effectiv... more Although scholars and practitioners have repeatedly touted the importance of negotiating effectively across cultures, paradoxically, little research has addressed what predicts intercultural negotiation effectiveness. In this research, we examined the impact of cultural intelligence (CQ) on intercultural negotiation processes and outcomes, controlling for other types of intelligence (cognitive ability and emotional intelligence), personality (openness and extraversion), and international experience. Transcripts of 124 American and East Asian negotiators were coded for sequences of integrative information behaviors and cooperative relationship management behaviors. CQ measured a week prior to negotiations predicted the extent to which negotiators sequenced integrative information behaviors, which in turn predicted joint profit, over and beyond other individual differences. Additional analyses revealed that the level of integrative sequencing was more a function of the lower-scoring than the higher-scoring negotiator within the dyad. Other individual difference characteristics were not related to effective intercultural negotiation processes. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Cambridge Handbook of Culture, Organizations, and Work

Public reporting burden for the collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per resp... more Public reporting burden for the collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington VA 22202-4302. Respondents should be aware that notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to a penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a currently valid OMB control number.

The Oxford Handbook of Organizational Psychology, Volume 2, 2012

The chapter presents an overview of the cross-cultural organizational psychology literature with ... more The chapter presents an overview of the cross-cultural organizational psychology literature with three specific aims: to provide future research direction based on a historical projection of the development of the field; to summarize the state-of-the-art literature in substansive areas, including recruitment and selection, nature of jobs, criteria for performance, work motivation, job attitudes, teamwork, leadership, conflict and negotiation; and to discuss challenges faced by cross-cultural researchers (e.g., level of analysis, interaction between cultural and organizational contingencies). Our review indicates that individualism-collectivism attracts the most research attention and accounts for substantial variation in organizational behavior across cultures. Our review also points out that the impact of cultural values on organizational phenomena vary depending on organizational and task-related contingencies. The need is identified to expand the cross-cultural industrial and org...

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 1999

In this paper, we argue that judgment biases in negotiation are perpetuated by underlying cultura... more In this paper, we argue that judgment biases in negotiation are perpetuated by underlying cultural values and ideals, and therefore, certain judgment biases will be more prevalent in certain cultural contexts. Based on theory in cultural psychology (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1989), we considered the notion that fixed pie error, a judgment bias in which negotiators fail to accurately understand their counterparts' interests (Pruitt & Lewis, 1975; Thompson & Hastie, 1990), would be more prevalent at the end of negotiations in the United States, an individualistic culture, than Greece, a collectivistic culture. The results of a 2-week computer-mediated intercultural negotiation experiment, which took place between American students in Illinois and Greek students in Athens, supported this view. Theoretical implications of culture and cognition in negotiation are also discussed.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2007

Unlike typical negotiation experiments, these studies investigated when men and women initiate ne... more Unlike typical negotiation experiments, these studies investigated when men and women initiate negotiations in the absence of overt prescriptions to negotiate. Using a new experimental paradigm, the authors showed that the framing of situations is a critical driver of gender differences in initiating negotiations. Drawing on literature on language, power, and politeness, the authors argued that framing situations as opportunities for negotiation is particularly intimidating to women, as this language is inconsistent with norms for politeness among low-power individuals, such as women. By contrast, framing situations as opportunities for asking is much less intimidating to women, as this language is more polite and role-consistent. Consequently, gender differences in initiating negotiations persisted when situations were framed as opportunities for negotiation yet were eliminated when situations were framed as opportunities to ask. Moreover, primed power attenuated gender differences in aversive reactions to the negotiation frame. In all, the studies presented begin to elucidate the reasons for gender differences in initiating negotiations and further illustrate that such effects depend on the situation.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1995

Individualism and collectivism are often equated with independent vs. interdependent, agentic vs.... more Individualism and collectivism are often equated with independent vs. interdependent, agentic vs. communal, and separate vs. relational self-construals. Although these same concepts have been used to characterize both cultural and gender differences, a perspective of cultural evolution suggests it is unlikely. A division of labor within society may produce gender differences, but this cannot explain cultural differences. A study of self-construal involving 5 cultures (Australia, the United States, Hawaii, Japan, and Korea) shows that differences between these cultures are captured mostly by the extent to which people see themselves as acting as independent agents, whereas gender differences are best summarized by the extent to which people regard themselves as emotionally related to others.

Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2013

The difficulties of intercultural negotiations are well established, yet few studies have examine... more The difficulties of intercultural negotiations are well established, yet few studies have examined the factors that facilitate the successful resolution of these disputes. This research took a dynamic approach and examined the types of mediation tactics that are most effective in intercultural disputes given specific disputant characteristics. One hundred and ten participants from the United States and Turkey negotiated a community-based dispute in real time from their respective countries using a newly developed virtual lab. Dyads were randomly assigned to negotiate with a formulative computer mediator, a manipulative computer mediator, or in an unmediated control condition. As predicted, the results showed a significant interaction between manipulative mediation and markers of disputant difficulty on Pareto efficiency. Manipulative mediation produced agreements of higher Pareto efficiency in intercultural dyads with more difficult disputants (low openness to mediation, low motivational cultural intelligence (CQ), low trust, and low willingness to concede) but lower Pareto efficiency in dyads with more favorable disputant factors (high openness to mediation, high motivational CQ, high trust, and high willingness to concede). The results for subjective value also partially supported the hypotheses. Theoretical and practical implications for the study of intercultural disputes are discussed.

Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2013

To date, the vast majority of the research on aggression has been conducted on Western samples. T... more To date, the vast majority of the research on aggression has been conducted on Western samples. This research expands the culture-bound understanding of aggression by examining universal and culture-specific dimensions that underlie the psychological structure of aggression. Drawing on cultural logics of honor, dignity, and face, we examine the construal of aggression across Pakistan, Israel, Japan, and the United States. Multidimensional scaling analyses revealed potentially universal dimensions of aggression. In all four nations, dimensions of damage to self-worth and direct versus indirect aggression emerged, and a physical versus verbal aggression emerged in Pakistan, Israel, and Japan. In addition, an infringement to personal resources dimension emerged in the United States and Israel, and a degree of threat dimension emerged in Pakistan. Further, results demonstrated cultural specificity in terms of (i) where aggressive behaviors fell along each dimension and (ii) meanings that defined each dimension across cultures. These findings have implications for the prevention and attenuation of intercultural conflicts as well as the advancement of the cross-cultural psychology and the aggression literatures.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 2006

Cross-cultural research is dominated by the use of values despite their mixed empirical support a... more Cross-cultural research is dominated by the use of values despite their mixed empirical support and their limited theoretical scope. This article expands the dominant paradigm in crosscultural research by developing a theory of cultural tightness-looseness, the strength of social norms and degree of sanctioning within societies, and advancing a multilevel research agenda for future research. Through an exploration of the top-down, bottom-up, and moderating impact that societal tightness-looseness has on individuals and organizations, as well as on variability across levels of analysis, the theory provides a new and complementary perspective to the values approach.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 2013

Within the United States, teams outperform solos in negotiation (Thompson, Peterson, & Brodt, 199... more Within the United States, teams outperform solos in negotiation (Thompson, Peterson, & Brodt, 1996). The current research examined whether this team advantage generalizes to negotiators from a collectivist culture (Taiwan). Because different cultures have different social norms, and because the team context may amplify the norms that are salient in a particular culture (Gelfand & Realo, 1999), we predicted that the effect of teams on negotiation would differ across cultures. Specifically, we predicted that since harmony norms predominate in collectivist cultures like Taiwan, the team context would amplify a concern with harmony, leading Taiwanese teams to negotiate especially suboptimal outcomes. In support, 2 studies showed that Taiwanese teams negotiated less-optimal outcomes than Taiwanese solos. We also used a moderated-mediation analysis to investigate the mechanism (Hayes, 2012), documenting that the interactive effect of culture and context on outcomes was mediated by harmony norms. By showing that the same situational conditions (team negotiations) can have divergent effects on negotiation outcomes across cultures, our results point toward a nuanced, sociocontextual view that moves beyond the culture-as-main-effect approach to studying culture and negotiations.

In this article we advance a distinctly relational view of negotiation. We delineate the conditio... more In this article we advance a distinctly relational view of negotiation. We delineate the conditions through which relational self-construals (RSC) become accessible in negotiations and the conditions that inhibit their use, and we illustrate mechanisms through which RSC affects negotiation processes and outcomes. We introduce four relational dynamics - arelational trading, relational satisficing, relational distancing, and relational integrating - and discuss their consequences for the accumulation of economic and relational capital in negotiation.Nishii15_Negtotiating_Rationally.pdf: 324 downloads, before Oct. 1, 2020

PNAS Nexus

At the beginning of 2020, COVID-19 became a global problem. Despite all the efforts to emphasize ... more At the beginning of 2020, COVID-19 became a global problem. Despite all the efforts to emphasize the relevance of preventive measures, not everyone adhered to them. Thus, learning more about the characteristics determining attitudinal and behavioral responses to the pandemic is crucial to improving future interventions. In this study, we applied machine learning on the multi-national data collected by the International Collaboration on the Social and Moral Psychology of COVID-19 (N = 51,404) to test the predictive efficacy of constructs from social, moral, cognitive, and personality psychology, as well as socio-demographic factors, in the attitudinal and behavioral responses to the pandemic. The results point to several valuable insights. Internalized moral identity provided the most consistent predictive contribution—individuals perceiving moral traits as central to their self-concept reported higher adherence to preventive measures. Similar was found for morality as cooperation, s...

Nature Communications, 2021

Norm enforcement may be important for resolving conflicts and promoting cooperation. However, lit... more Norm enforcement may be important for resolving conflicts and promoting cooperation. However, little is known about how preferred responses to norm violations vary across cultures and across domains. In a preregistered study of 57 countries (using convenience samples of 22,863 students and non-students), we measured perceptions of the appropriateness of various responses to a violation of a cooperative norm and to atypical social behaviors. Our findings highlight both cultural universals and cultural variation. We find a universal negative relation between appropriateness ratings of norm violations and appropriateness ratings of responses in the form of confrontation, social ostracism and gossip. Moreover, we find the country variation in the appropriateness of sanctions to be consistent across different norm violations but not across different sanctions. Specifically, in those countries where use of physical confrontation and social ostracism is rated as less appropriate, gossip is...

Changing collective behaviour and supporting non-pharmaceutical interventions is an important com... more Changing collective behaviour and supporting non-pharmaceutical interventions is an important component in mitigating virus transmission during a pandemic. In a large international collaboration (Study 1, N = 49,968 across 67 countries), we investigated self-reported factors that associated with people reported adopting public health behaviours (e.g., spatial distancing and stricter hygiene) and endorsed public policy interventions (e.g., closing bars and restaurants) during the early stage of the pandemic (April-May 2020). Respondents who reported identifying more strongly with their nation consistently reported greater engagement in public health behaviours and support for public health policies. Results were similar for representative and non-representative national samples. Study 2 (N = 42 countries) conceptually replicated the central finding using aggregate indices of national identity (obtained using the World Values Survey) and a measure of actual behaviour change during the...

Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 2019

Negotiation scholars generally model agreement as the terminal "endpoint" of the process. From th... more Negotiation scholars generally model agreement as the terminal "endpoint" of the process. From this perspective, parties instantaneously realize their outcomes when agreement is reached. Although this conception may also reflect the understanding of some negotiators (those with what we call a "fixed agreement" mindset), we argue that others actually envision agreement as one step in an ongoing process (what we call a "fluid agreement" mindset). To spur research on this topic, we report initial progress on development of a new measure of agreement fluidity. Basic psychometric properties for this measure were established using six correlational samples that demonstrate aspects of both discriminant and convergent validity. Fixed agreement mindset appears to predict important behaviors during and after the negotiation process. Contracts are set all the time for projects, but once projects begin, the scope may change based on uncovered information. There are discussions on re-scoping the statement of work and expected fees. This is true on both sides-either the resources may change on the client side, information is uncovered on either side, or there are changes to proposed methodology based on new information. (quote from a Study 5 participant) We went back to the contract and threatened to hold funds and payables from them. (quote from a Study 5 participant) These two quotes represent very different views of contracts. The first represents a view that we call a "fluid agreement" mindset; the second, a "fixed agreement" mindset. The first represents a view that negotiated agreements are quite likely to change due to everything from emergent information to changing economic conditions to unforeseen project delays. Change in the agreement is not surprising from this perspective, nor a source of worry. The second represents a view that negotiated agreements are meant to be honored as agreed upon that changes are indeed a source of worry-and possibly reflect a breach of integrity. There is not much tolerance for changing circumstances from this second perspective. This article introduces the concept of agreement fluidity mindset, introduces a scale to measure it, and explores its implications. The idea of agreement fluidity stands in contrast to most research on negotiation. In almost all negotiation studies (including work published by the authors), researchers focus on specific terms of the deal

Academy of Management Discoveries, 2016

Although previous research has linked hyperbolic discounting, an economic model of impatience, to... more Although previous research has linked hyperbolic discounting, an economic model of impatience, to negative outcomes such as smoking, problem drinking, lowered academic achievement, and ineffective career search decisions, there is little research that addresses how impatience may impact performance at the bargaining table and whether Americans have a disadvantage in negotiations as compared to other cultural groups as a result. Using the subjective line task AQ:1 , we replicate previous research showing that subjective time perceptions underpin hyperbolic discounting (Study 1a, n 5 101) and are related to estimations and perceptions of durations in a timed experiment and impatience in recalled

Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2015

We complement the dominant rational model of negotiation found in the West with a new honor model... more We complement the dominant rational model of negotiation found in the West with a new honor model of negotiation found in many Arabic-speaking populations and illustrate the linguistic processes that facilitate creativity in negotiation agreements in the United States and Egypt. Community samples (N = 136) were recruited in the United States and Egypt and negotiated an integrative bargaining task, Discount Marketplace. Analyses of categories of the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) and our own newly developed honor dictionary illustrate that the same language that predicts integrative agreements in the United States, namely, that which is rational and logical (cognitive mechanisms, LIWC), actually backfires and hinders agreements in Egypt. Creativity in Egypt, by contrast, reflects an honor model of negotiating with language that promotes honor gain (i.e., moral integrity) and honor protection (i.e., image and strength). Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology, 2011

An agent for training to manage diplomatic crises has recently been designed by Kraus et al. [200... more An agent for training to manage diplomatic crises has recently been designed by Kraus et al. [2008], but it was not evaluated by interacting with people of diverse cultural backgrounds.

Conducting multinational research: Applying organizational psychology in the workplace.

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 2010

Apologies are useful social tools that can act as catalysts in the resolution of conflict and ins... more Apologies are useful social tools that can act as catalysts in the resolution of conflict and inspire forgiveness. Yet as numerous real-world blunders attest, apologies are not always effective. Whereas many lead to forgiveness and reconciliation, others simply fall on deaf ears. Despite the fact that apologies differ in their effectiveness, most research has focused on apologies as dichotomous phenomena wherein a victim either (a) receives an apology or (b) does not. Psychological research has yet to elucidate which components of apologies are most effective, and for whom. The present research begins to address this gap by testing the theory that perpetrators' apologies are most likely to inspire victim forgiveness when their components align with victims' self-construals. Regression and hierarchical linear modeling analyses from two studies support the primary hypotheses. As predicted, victims reacted most positively to apologies that were congruent with their self-construals.

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 2010

Although scholars and practitioners have repeatedly touted the importance of negotiating effectiv... more Although scholars and practitioners have repeatedly touted the importance of negotiating effectively across cultures, paradoxically, little research has addressed what predicts intercultural negotiation effectiveness. In this research, we examined the impact of cultural intelligence (CQ) on intercultural negotiation processes and outcomes, controlling for other types of intelligence (cognitive ability and emotional intelligence), personality (openness and extraversion), and international experience. Transcripts of 124 American and East Asian negotiators were coded for sequences of integrative information behaviors and cooperative relationship management behaviors. CQ measured a week prior to negotiations predicted the extent to which negotiators sequenced integrative information behaviors, which in turn predicted joint profit, over and beyond other individual differences. Additional analyses revealed that the level of integrative sequencing was more a function of the lower-scoring than the higher-scoring negotiator within the dyad. Other individual difference characteristics were not related to effective intercultural negotiation processes. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Cambridge Handbook of Culture, Organizations, and Work

Public reporting burden for the collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per resp... more Public reporting burden for the collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington VA 22202-4302. Respondents should be aware that notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to a penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a currently valid OMB control number.

The Oxford Handbook of Organizational Psychology, Volume 2, 2012

The chapter presents an overview of the cross-cultural organizational psychology literature with ... more The chapter presents an overview of the cross-cultural organizational psychology literature with three specific aims: to provide future research direction based on a historical projection of the development of the field; to summarize the state-of-the-art literature in substansive areas, including recruitment and selection, nature of jobs, criteria for performance, work motivation, job attitudes, teamwork, leadership, conflict and negotiation; and to discuss challenges faced by cross-cultural researchers (e.g., level of analysis, interaction between cultural and organizational contingencies). Our review indicates that individualism-collectivism attracts the most research attention and accounts for substantial variation in organizational behavior across cultures. Our review also points out that the impact of cultural values on organizational phenomena vary depending on organizational and task-related contingencies. The need is identified to expand the cross-cultural industrial and org...

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 1999

In this paper, we argue that judgment biases in negotiation are perpetuated by underlying cultura... more In this paper, we argue that judgment biases in negotiation are perpetuated by underlying cultural values and ideals, and therefore, certain judgment biases will be more prevalent in certain cultural contexts. Based on theory in cultural psychology (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1989), we considered the notion that fixed pie error, a judgment bias in which negotiators fail to accurately understand their counterparts' interests (Pruitt & Lewis, 1975; Thompson & Hastie, 1990), would be more prevalent at the end of negotiations in the United States, an individualistic culture, than Greece, a collectivistic culture. The results of a 2-week computer-mediated intercultural negotiation experiment, which took place between American students in Illinois and Greek students in Athens, supported this view. Theoretical implications of culture and cognition in negotiation are also discussed.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2007

Unlike typical negotiation experiments, these studies investigated when men and women initiate ne... more Unlike typical negotiation experiments, these studies investigated when men and women initiate negotiations in the absence of overt prescriptions to negotiate. Using a new experimental paradigm, the authors showed that the framing of situations is a critical driver of gender differences in initiating negotiations. Drawing on literature on language, power, and politeness, the authors argued that framing situations as opportunities for negotiation is particularly intimidating to women, as this language is inconsistent with norms for politeness among low-power individuals, such as women. By contrast, framing situations as opportunities for asking is much less intimidating to women, as this language is more polite and role-consistent. Consequently, gender differences in initiating negotiations persisted when situations were framed as opportunities for negotiation yet were eliminated when situations were framed as opportunities to ask. Moreover, primed power attenuated gender differences in aversive reactions to the negotiation frame. In all, the studies presented begin to elucidate the reasons for gender differences in initiating negotiations and further illustrate that such effects depend on the situation.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1995

Individualism and collectivism are often equated with independent vs. interdependent, agentic vs.... more Individualism and collectivism are often equated with independent vs. interdependent, agentic vs. communal, and separate vs. relational self-construals. Although these same concepts have been used to characterize both cultural and gender differences, a perspective of cultural evolution suggests it is unlikely. A division of labor within society may produce gender differences, but this cannot explain cultural differences. A study of self-construal involving 5 cultures (Australia, the United States, Hawaii, Japan, and Korea) shows that differences between these cultures are captured mostly by the extent to which people see themselves as acting as independent agents, whereas gender differences are best summarized by the extent to which people regard themselves as emotionally related to others.

Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2013

The difficulties of intercultural negotiations are well established, yet few studies have examine... more The difficulties of intercultural negotiations are well established, yet few studies have examined the factors that facilitate the successful resolution of these disputes. This research took a dynamic approach and examined the types of mediation tactics that are most effective in intercultural disputes given specific disputant characteristics. One hundred and ten participants from the United States and Turkey negotiated a community-based dispute in real time from their respective countries using a newly developed virtual lab. Dyads were randomly assigned to negotiate with a formulative computer mediator, a manipulative computer mediator, or in an unmediated control condition. As predicted, the results showed a significant interaction between manipulative mediation and markers of disputant difficulty on Pareto efficiency. Manipulative mediation produced agreements of higher Pareto efficiency in intercultural dyads with more difficult disputants (low openness to mediation, low motivational cultural intelligence (CQ), low trust, and low willingness to concede) but lower Pareto efficiency in dyads with more favorable disputant factors (high openness to mediation, high motivational CQ, high trust, and high willingness to concede). The results for subjective value also partially supported the hypotheses. Theoretical and practical implications for the study of intercultural disputes are discussed.

Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2013

To date, the vast majority of the research on aggression has been conducted on Western samples. T... more To date, the vast majority of the research on aggression has been conducted on Western samples. This research expands the culture-bound understanding of aggression by examining universal and culture-specific dimensions that underlie the psychological structure of aggression. Drawing on cultural logics of honor, dignity, and face, we examine the construal of aggression across Pakistan, Israel, Japan, and the United States. Multidimensional scaling analyses revealed potentially universal dimensions of aggression. In all four nations, dimensions of damage to self-worth and direct versus indirect aggression emerged, and a physical versus verbal aggression emerged in Pakistan, Israel, and Japan. In addition, an infringement to personal resources dimension emerged in the United States and Israel, and a degree of threat dimension emerged in Pakistan. Further, results demonstrated cultural specificity in terms of (i) where aggressive behaviors fell along each dimension and (ii) meanings that defined each dimension across cultures. These findings have implications for the prevention and attenuation of intercultural conflicts as well as the advancement of the cross-cultural psychology and the aggression literatures.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 2006

Cross-cultural research is dominated by the use of values despite their mixed empirical support a... more Cross-cultural research is dominated by the use of values despite their mixed empirical support and their limited theoretical scope. This article expands the dominant paradigm in crosscultural research by developing a theory of cultural tightness-looseness, the strength of social norms and degree of sanctioning within societies, and advancing a multilevel research agenda for future research. Through an exploration of the top-down, bottom-up, and moderating impact that societal tightness-looseness has on individuals and organizations, as well as on variability across levels of analysis, the theory provides a new and complementary perspective to the values approach.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 2013

Within the United States, teams outperform solos in negotiation (Thompson, Peterson, & Brodt, 199... more Within the United States, teams outperform solos in negotiation (Thompson, Peterson, & Brodt, 1996). The current research examined whether this team advantage generalizes to negotiators from a collectivist culture (Taiwan). Because different cultures have different social norms, and because the team context may amplify the norms that are salient in a particular culture (Gelfand & Realo, 1999), we predicted that the effect of teams on negotiation would differ across cultures. Specifically, we predicted that since harmony norms predominate in collectivist cultures like Taiwan, the team context would amplify a concern with harmony, leading Taiwanese teams to negotiate especially suboptimal outcomes. In support, 2 studies showed that Taiwanese teams negotiated less-optimal outcomes than Taiwanese solos. We also used a moderated-mediation analysis to investigate the mechanism (Hayes, 2012), documenting that the interactive effect of culture and context on outcomes was mediated by harmony norms. By showing that the same situational conditions (team negotiations) can have divergent effects on negotiation outcomes across cultures, our results point toward a nuanced, sociocontextual view that moves beyond the culture-as-main-effect approach to studying culture and negotiations.