Nicolas Dneprovsky - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Nicolas Dneprovsky

Бахчисарай: новые исследования по истории и археологии Крыма. , 2023

The wall painting of the “Assumption” сhurch is the only Crimean mural with the survived composit... more The wall painting of the “Assumption” сhurch is the only Crimean mural with the survived composition of the "Epiphany". However, the poor preservation of the Jordan River allegorical image did not allow previous researchers to give its adequate description. The author developed a method of determining the iconography of extinct and severely damaged images by means of a conventional camera and a graphic editor. As a result of its application, the original iconography of the Jordan allegory was determined reliably for the first time. It does not correspond to the previous ideas and represents the image of a man sitting astride a water animal with a jug in his right hand and a golden helmet with an orange plume on his head. The presence of a helmet makes this image unique. Jordan's head is turned toward Christ, and the gesture of his left hand expresses submission. The revealed details of the fresco composition are analyzed in the context of the Greek rite of the Great Consecration of Water, and its comparison with the architectural and archaeological context of the church space confirms the author's hypothesis about the existence of a holy spring there, the water of which was probably used as an apotropee. Keywords: allegory of Jordan, Baptism of Christ, cave church, "cave cities", Church of the Assumption, Crimea, Eski-Kermen, fresco, iconography, source studies.

Speleology and Spelestology, № 1, 2023

The cave church, located in the upper reaches of the Tcherkes-Kermen Gorge, is one of the few mon... more The cave church, located in the upper reaches of the Tcherkes-Kermen Gorge, is one of the few monuments of the Crimean peninsula, in which wall paintings were preserved.
However, there are still a lot of unresolved issues in the study of these murals. The author clarified a number of the mural painting iconography elements which allowed answer many of them.
Due to source base study and the field studies of the, it became possible to develop a working methodology of dating its altar painting. Presumably, the church was first painted in 1381–1382, and then its frescoed main image was re-painted in the summer of 1424.
For the first time three of the five previously unknown figures of the saintly ranks (St. Basil the Great, St. John Chrysostom and St. Cyril of Alexandria) were reliably attributed, the attribution of the fourth figure as St. John of Gotha was put under doubt. At the same time, the assumption of the patriarchal status of the last character is substantiated.
The nature of the object in the hands of the Archdeacon (i. e. censer) is clarified.
An image of St. Anastasia, the Lady of Sorrows, has been attributed reliably.
A reasonable explanation is given for the destruction of the equestrian image of St. Theodore Stratelates, the creation of a niche in its place and the existence of a double fresco layer here. It is also shown, that the fresco painting was not replaced by the icon.
The significance of the flourishing cross on the church western wall as a heraldic symbol is questioned, and its significance as a symbol of salvation for the deceased "in faith and in hope of resurrection" is substantiated instead.
At the same time, some other geraldic symbols in the church hinted that its ktetors belonged to the House of Grand Komnenoi.
The meaning of three inscriptions near the ktetors' images was clarified. All of them were commemorative and began the same way, informing about the repose of the persons depicted next to them.
A holistic sacred space analysis of the church was carried out and the conclusion was made that it was the keeper of "earthly" memory of the deceased and at the same time was to provide them with eternal memory and a complete triumph over death on the day of the second coming of Christ.

Key words: archaeological dating, attribution of saints, cave church, Christian archaeology, Christian symbolism, Crimea, "Donators’" church, epigraphy, Eucharistic image, frescoes, iconography, liturgical texts, sacred space, semiotics, "service of Holy Fathers".

ВОПРОСЫ ВСЕОБЩЕЙ ИСТОРИИ АРХИТЕКТУРЫ, 2021

Since the excavations of 1930th the point of view about the existence of a water pipe from the so... more Since the excavations of 1930th the point of view about the existence of a water pipe from the source at the Bilderan Upland to the "cave city" of Eski-Kermen prevails in literature. But there is no information about the impact of this engineering network on the urban planning context. This alone makes the mentioned ideas questionable. Despite this fact, recently the budget funds have again been allocated for research on the issue of Eski-Kermen water supply system. In order to avoid the waste of them, the previously unknown archival materials on this topic are introduced into scientific circulation. It follows from them that by 1935 the impossibility of conducting the water pipeline from Bilderan to Eski-Kermen was firmly established. Instead of water-collecting cisterns, other structures were found on the slope of Eski-Kermen, including the remains of a church. The diary records of its excavations were destroyed, but it did not save the situation, since later Professor V. V. Danilevsky found that the technical implementation of the ceramic water supply system to the Eski-Kermen was impossible. Its design could not withstand the water pressure with the existing height difference. Also it turned out that the organization of the expedition was not supported either by the study of historical sources or by engineering analysis. This conclusion could cost its initiators, who widely advertised the idea of using the ancient irrigation facilities for the needs of collective farm construction in Crimea. Therefore, it was not reflected in the published materials of the Eski-Kermen expedition, and V. V. Danilevsky himself was compromised by V. I. Ravdonikas – the head of the expedition who at the same time offered his own justification for the impracticability of the further investigations at Bilderan. Keywords: archaeology, "cave cities", Crimea, Eski-Kermen, Eski-Kermen expedition, source studies, water supply.

Speleologiia i spelestologiia. № 1. 2021. – Pp. 110–124., 2021

In one of his previous works the author suggested that the so-called cave church of the “Assumpti... more In one of his previous works the author suggested that the so-called cave church of the “Assumption” was converted from a defensive casemate. To test this assumption, a search was made for a similar cave that preserved the original features of the defensive structure. Such a cave was found near the so called the “Hall of Judgment” cave church in the south-eastern cliff. Like the church of the “Assumption”, it is also located in front of the main fortress wall and has a balcony with an embrasure.
Both caves were considered by previous researchers to be late and unrelated to the Eski-Kermen defence system. However, the analysis showed that in reality the cave in the cliff was built into this system. The embrasure of its balcony protected the stairway to the platform in front of the city wall. The platform itself was enclosed by a low parapet with a wicket, traces of which were found in situ. In its turn, the presence of a parapet and a gate called into question the late nature of the caves at the platform. While the cave in the upper tier covered this wicket with bow fire, the caves in the lower tier most likely served to guard it, as well as to guard the next wicket situated in front of the main city gate.
The proposed interpretation of the cave near the "Hall of Judgment" also allows us to reconsider the possible purpose of both balconies of the latter. One of the balconies is located just opposite the first wicket, and the second is opposite the next one. Therefore, they could also be used to protect the wickets.
At the same time, all the previously identified architectural and archaeological features of this site fit well into the new model, and the cave in the cliff can be considered as a typical technical solution. Judging by the preserved remains of the original structures in the complex of the "Assumption" church, the same solution was once applied to the organization of the military cave, which was later converted into this church. In this regard, the discovery of a part from a powerful crossbow, made in 2019 in the vicinity of Eski-Kermen, can significantly correct our ideas about the methods of the fortress defence.
In general, the engineering analysis of architectural and archaeological remains preserved on the territory of the "cave cities" of the Crimea is a powerful tool for clarifying our ideas about the Crimean historical realities.

Key words: archeology, cave casemate, cave church, "cave cities", сhurch of the “Assumption”, Crimea, crossbow, dating, defensive cave, fortress, medieval fortification, Eski-Kermen.

Speleologiia i spelestologiia. № 1. 2021. – Pp. 60–68.

The article deals with a liquid collecting device arranged in the wall of “Assumption” cave churc... more The article deals with a liquid collecting device arranged in the wall of “Assumption” cave church. The conclusion about its co-existence with the church murals is substantiated, which confirms the assumption that it was not a wine press, as is commonly believed, but a holy spring.

Key words: archaeology, Crimea, cave сhurch, «cave towns», Eski-Kermen, the сhurch of the «Assumption», dating, holy spring, hydrogeology, vine press.

Materialy po arkheologii i istorii antichnogo i srednevekovogo Kryma. Sevastopol' – Tiumen', 2012. Vyp. IV. Pp. 125–193. .[URL]: https://maiask.ru/data/documents/MAIASK\_4\_Dneprovskiy\_Uspen.pdf, 2012

Although the cave church of “Dormition” (“Assumption”) was studied by several generations of scie... more Although the cave church of “Dormition” (“Assumption”) was studied by several generations of scientists, many issues are still remain disputable. Firstly, the church was carved in the rock in front of the fortress wall which was considered as a very strange fact. Secondly, there are three mysterious elements in the interior of the church: a strange “tray” adjacent the remains of the holy table; a huge pit in the floor; and the two cascade-connected reservoirs, the upper reservoir arranged in a wall niche. So the cave was considered as having several stages of existence. N.I.Repnikov thought that the church created only after destruction of the wall was later conversed into utility “room”. He considered reservoirs as remains of the rock-cut winery press, or ‘tarapan’. O.I.Dombrovsky had the opposite view. His opinion was that the church was arranged in former “utility room”. Meanwhile N.E.Gaigukov tries to prove that the church could co-exist with winery.
Our investigation of the fortification shows, that the cave initially was cut in the rock as a case mate arranged on a military foreground in front the fortress wall in order to enforce the latter. So, it did not enter into conflict with the existence of the fortress wall. And the strange rock-cut device was not the winery press, but the complex reservoir collecting water from water-bearing fracture in the wall. So, it served as a “holy spring” arranged just within the church. This is in agreement with mural painting of Epiphany over the reservoir. The vessel with holy water derived from this source was installed into the bowl under the holy table. Presumably this church belonged to the congregation of the military men.

Bakhchisarai: arkheologiia, istoriia, etnografiia : [sbornik]. – Bakhchisarai; Belgorod: KONSTANTA, 2018. – Pp. 70–87, ill., 2018

This article deals with the issues in dating the frescoes of the "Dormition" (Assumption) cave ch... more This article deals with the issues in dating the frescoes of the "Dormition" (Assumption) cave church which is situated at Eski-Kermen (Crimea). Only one attempt of dating the fresco is based on the analysis of epigraphical data. All the rest are of indirect type and are based on the analysis of iconography and style of murals. Some scholars didn’t substantiate their dating at all (F.A.Kozen, N.L.Ernst, N.I.Repnikov). Others (O.I.Dombrovsky, I.G.Volkonskaya) didn’t formulate dating criteria explicitly. The estimation of the explicit or implicit criteria validity shows the level of their effectiveness. From this point of view it is worthy to know that even the first researches of Eski-Kermen, N.L.Ernst and N.I.Repnikov, were disagree about the dating of "Dormition" church frescoes. The datings of O.I.Dombrovsky and I.G.Volkonskaya have inner contradictions. The only scholar who formulates his criteria explicitly, is E.N.Osaulenko. He dates "Dormition" murals by the period between 1300 and 1340th. But, in fact, the murals of Panagia Mavriotissa meet these criteria just as well as ‘Dormition’ murals. Meanwhile the frescoes of Panagia were painted no later than in the beginning of 13th century. This makes Osaulenko’s criteria doubtful. So, the dating of "Dormition" church frescoes should, probably be revised.
Key words: archaeology, Crimea, «cave towns», Eski-Kermen, cave сhurch, the сhurch of the «Dormition», fresco, dating, iconography, stylistic analysis, Panagia Mavriotissa.

Bakhchisarai: arkheologiia, istoriia, etnografiia : [sbornik] . – Bakhchisarai; Belgorod: KONSTANTA, 2018. – Pp. 55–69, ill., 2018

This article deals with the difficulties in dating and interpretation of the fresco painted on a ... more This article deals with the difficulties in dating and interpretation of the fresco painted on a northern wall of the "Three Riders" cave church which is situated at Eski-Kermen (Crimea). In particular, one of former attempts to date the church by analogy with the temple of "Assumption" was made by means of analyzing the plaster used as the ground of these wall-paintings. The results of this attempt turned out incorrect, as well as the statement that in these murals "fresco secco" technology was applied. Also, the interpretation of the middle rider was specified. It is confirmed that the remains of the beard on a face of the middle rider (discovered by E.N. Osaulenko) clearly specify not St. George, but, most probably, St. Theodore Teron or St. Theodore Stratelate. The iconography of the left rider and the small human figure is specified as well and its divergence with O.I. Dombrovsky's reconstruction is revealed. At the same time studying remains of the image of a hat of the right rider validates its reconstruction by O.I. Dombrovsky and indicates that its prototype was either the Greek petassos, or the similar Italian hat, or the helmet, but not the Byzantine skiadion as A. Plontke-Lüning believes. Thus, the study of the "Three Riders" mural cannot be considered completed and, therefore, its correct interpretation and dating is possible only after specification of its valid iconography.

Keywords: archaeology, Crimea, «cave towns», Eski-Kermen, cave сhurch, the сhurch of the «Three Riders», fresco, dating, iconography, stylistic analysis, theology, St. George, St. Theodore Stratelates, St. Theodore Teron.

Khersonesskii sbornik. Issue XXII. Sbornik nauchnykh trudov / A. V. Zaikov (ed.). – Sevastopol': GIAMZ «Khersones Tavricheskii», 2021. – Pp. 223–240., 2021

It is believed that the so-called "Garrison Church" at Mangup was firstly excavated only in 1912 ... more It is believed that the so-called "Garrison Church" at Mangup was firstly excavated only in 1912 by R.Ch. Loeper. However, this opinion is based only on his brief account of the excavations. Meanwhile, the analysis of the materials of the amateur archaeologist D.M. Strukov shows that as early as 1868 he cleared, described and graphically recorded thе same church. However, some inaccuracies in the publication of this monument prevented its timely introduction into scientific circulation.

Key words: cave church, Christian archeology, Crimea, "garrison Church", Loeper R.Ch., Mangup, Strukov D.M.

Speleologiia i spelestologiia. № 2. 2021. – Pp. 38–58., 2021

The article deals with the problem of construction periodization of the "Three Horsemen" church a... more The article deals with the problem of construction periodization of the "Three Horsemen" church at the settlement of Eski-Kermen. In the literature it is traditionally dated by XIII century, and it is believed that there are no later alterations in it. However, there are no real indications of its creation time, and the technique of its walls and ceiling processing differs in different places. This allowed N. E. Gaidukov to suppose two construction periods in the church history, during the second of which its northern part was specially reconstructed for painting frescoes. However, his hypothesis was criticized by Yu. M. Mogarichev, who explains the difference in processing technology by the usual need to prepare the wall for painting.
The author's research has confirmed the presence of later alterations in the church. When the children's grave was cut in its floor, a part of the stone bench was also cut down, and then a second entrance to the church was arranged there. Later, a large niche in the wall was almost destroyed nearby. Traces of destroyed graffiti and relief images were found on the altar barrier. The central and northern parts of the church were carved with different tools, and this difference is present not only on the walls, but also on the ceiling, where there is no fresco painting at all. The traces of different types of wall processing are superimposed on each other without creating a sharp border. This means that different parts of the church were really rock-cut at different times. Traces of similar tools are found on the embedded slabs of the burial ground which surrounds the church and functioned only until the end of the IX century. At the same time, there is a vault partially cut down in the bottom of the stone block with the church. Since the beginning of the X century such vaults have not been created, and another vault adjacent to the church, dates back to the VII century. The remains of the image of the cross were found on the floor of the auxiliary room at the church. Meanwhile, since the end of the VII century it was already forbidden to depict crosses on the ground.
In general, the results of the study indicate a possible early creation of the church of the "Three Horsemen" and the presence of several construction periods in its history. Initially, the cave church could have been a cemetery church even during the functioning of the Eski-Kermen burial ground.

Keywords: cave church, Crimea, dating, Christian archeology, church of the "Three Horsemen", graffiti, stone processing.

Speleologiia i spelestologiia. № 2. 2021. – Pp. 108–11., 2021

The article deals with one episode in the study of mural paintings in the cave churches of Crimea... more The article deals with one episode in the study of mural paintings in the cave churches of Crimea, which clearly characterizes the actual degree of their study. In 1888 students of the Simferopol men's gymnasium visited Eski-Kermen "cave city". Later A.A. Arkhipov's sketches of the "Dormition" (Assumption) cave сhurch frescoes, made during this visit, aroused criticism from N. L. Erst. The scientist said that the "head" depicted by one of the drawings was "enigmatic", because there was no such a head on the fresco of the Dormition. However, a comparison of Arkhipov's drawing with the later drawing by V. Chepelev shows that the first of them depicts a real object, i.e. a fragment of the "Weeping Wives" composition from the scene of the "Assumption". The misunderstanding arose due to the fact that Arkhipov did not notice (and, accordingly, did not portray) another female head on the mural disposed next to the first one, but, however, badly damaged.

Speleologiia i spelestologiia. No. 3. 2021. – Pp. 71–89., 2021

The complex of the "Great" cave church has been described by researchers and travelers many times... more The complex of the "Great" cave church has been described by researchers and travelers many times, but there were a significant number of errors and inaccuracies in these descriptions. The author's research allowed to clarify the structure and the construction periodization of the church. In particular, its external wall is considered to be made of wood. In reality it was originally a rock wall, but after being collapsed it was rebuilt with masonry on the north side and with wood on the south side. A second wooden construction followed the edge of the cliff. Its southern edge was set into the wall and in the middle it was supported by three posts. Cross rafters were installed to the intermediate girder which connected the columns, the other end of which was embedded in the gaps in the cliff above the ceiling of the church. The roof was placed on the rafters, and one end of it went into the gutter eaves. The whole structure was anchored to stone rings in the rock. The later entrance to the church was from a vestibule with its own outer door. The altar part of the church was architecturally allocated by the triumphal arch supported by two semicircular columns projecting from a wall. Contrary to claims that the church had a "trapezoidal" altar barrier, the latter ran directly between the pillars of the triumphal arch meanwhile those wooden pillars, which used to be taken as parts of a altar barrier, in fact supported a wooden structure that protected the room from water penetrating through a crack in the ceiling. At the same time, there may, indeed, have been a holy spring in the southern hemisphere of the "Great" church. Two crosses were carved on the pillar of the altar arch beside it. By shining the light on the pillar, one gets the impression that there was an image of something else above the cross at a height of 0.3 metres, which unfortunately cannot be identified with certainty. Architectural and archaeological analysis of the Great Church shows that it did not come down to us in its original form, but was subjected to repeated alterations. The outer wall was reconstructed, the southern semicircle was enlarged and drainage facilities were installed. Thus the problem of struggle against moisture penetrating into the temple appeared not at once. The reasons for this necessity deserve a separate study.

Keywords: altar barrier, 'Big' cave church, Crimea, cave church, graffiti, liturgical layout, rock architecture, synthronon.

Voprosy vseobshchei istorii arkhitektury. No. 1 (16), 2021. – Pp. 72–91., 2021

Since the excavations of 1930th the point of view about the existence of a water pipe from the so... more Since the excavations of 1930th the point of view about the existence of a water pipe from the source at the Bilderan Upland to the "cave city" of Eski-Kermen prevails in literature. But there is no information about the impact of this engineering network on the urban planning context. This alone makes the mentioned ideas questionable.
Despite this fact, recently the budget funds have again been allocated for research on the issue of Eski-Kermen water supply system. In order to avoid the waste of them, the previously unknown archival materials on this topic are introduced into scientific circulation. It follows from them that by 1935 the impossibility of conducting the water pipeline from Bilderan to Eski-Kermen was firmly established. Instead of water-collecting cisterns, other structures were found on the slope of Eski-Kermen, including the remains of a church. The diary records of its excavations were destroyed, but it did not save the situation, since later Professor V. V. Danilevsky found that the technical implementation of the ceramic water supply system to the Eski-Kermen was impossible. Its design could not withstand the water pressure with the existing height difference. Also it turned out that the organization of the expedition was not supported either by the study of historical sources or by engineering analysis.
This conclusion could cost its initiators, who widely advertised the idea of using the ancient irrigation facilities for the needs of collective farm construction in Crimea. Therefore, it was not reflected in the published materials of the Eski-Kermen expedition, and V. V. Danilevsky himself was compromised by V. I. Ravdonikas – the head of the expedition who at the same time offered his own justification for the impracticability of the further investigations at Bilderan.

Keywords: archaeology, "cave cities", Crimea, Eski-Kermen, Eski-Kermen expedition, source studies, water supply.

Divnogorskii sbornik. Trudy muzeia-zapovednika «Divnogor'e». Issue 5., 2015

The author's research was the first to provide a comprehensive interpretation of the 'Three Horse... more The author's research was the first to provide a comprehensive interpretation of the 'Three Horsemen' cave church, i. e.: to clarify the its liturgical layout; to clarify the reading of the inscription beneath the frescoe on its northern wall; to refute the opinion that this inscription could be used to date the church itself; and to show at the same time that the imagery of the fresco corresponds the content of the inscription perfectly well from the pount of view of theology. To a certain extenthis this correspondance allows to reconstruct the lost part of the inscription content.

K. A. Bergsvik and M. Dowd (eds). Caves and ritual in medieval Europe, AD 500–1500. – Oxbow Books, Oxford & Philadelphia, 2018. Chapter 18. – P.p. 298–314., 2018

This chapter provides detailed results of investigations of the triconchial rock-cut churches sit... more This chapter provides detailed results of investigations of the triconchial rock-cut churches situated on the southern slopes of the plateau of Eski-Kermen, the so-called ‘Big’ and ‘Three Horsemen’ churches. Previously, the former was considered as a prototype for the latter. However, there was no unity amongst scholars in relation to the location of prothesis zones in these temples. Our investigation shows that each church has a small cave cell at the north-west side which can be considered as a skevofilakion and so, consequently, that both churches can be attributed to the same period.
Furthermore, a simultaneous studying of the liturgical planning of the Three Horsemen church, together with its mural painting and the Greek inscription beneath it, allows us to assume that this fresco represents the defunct inhabitant of Eski-Kermen, and the images of the Holy warriors were painted for the sake of the salvation of his soul.
The third temple, which is also considered by researchers as a triconch, the so-called ‘Small’ cave church, is situated near the city gate. But, in reality, it is of another form and, most likely, was upgraded from the observation point or guardroom