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Papers by Paul Wise

Sweetness drives consumption of added sugars, so understanding how individuals differ is importan... more Sweetness drives consumption of added sugars, so understanding how individuals differ is important for developing strategies to lower sugar intake. However, methods to assess hedonic response to sweetness vary, making results across studies difficult to integrate. We compared methods to measure optimal sucrose concentration in 21 healthy adults (1) using paired-comparison preference tracking vs. ratings of liking, (2) with participants in the laboratory vs. at home, and (3) using aqueous solutions vs. vanilla milk. Tests were replicated on separate days to assess test-retest reliability. Test-retest reliability was similar between laboratory and home testing, but tended to be better for vanilla milk and preference tracking. Optimal sucrose concentration was virtually identical between laboratory and home, slightly lower when estimated via preference tracking, and about 50% lower in vanilla milk. However, individual optimal sucrose concentration correlated strongly between Methods, t...

Chemical Senses, 2011

Psychophysical judgments often depend on stimulus context. For example, sugar solutions are judge... more Psychophysical judgments often depend on stimulus context. For example, sugar solutions are judged sweeter when a tasteless fruity aroma has been added. Response context also matters; adding a fruity aroma to sugar increases the rated sweetness when only sweetness is considered but not when fruitiness is judged as well. The interaction between stimulus context and response context has been explored more extensively in taste-odor mixtures than in taste-taste mixtures. To address this issue, subjects in the current study rated the sourness of citric acid mixed with quinine (bitter), sodium chloride (salty), and cyclamate (sweet) (stimulus context). In one condition, subjects rated sourness alone. In another, subjects rated both sourness and the other salient quality (bitterness, saltiness, or sweetness) (response context). Sourness ratings were most sensitive to response context for sour-salty mixtures (i.e., ratings of sourness alone exceeded ratings of sourness made simultaneously with saltiness) and least sensitive to context for the sour-sweet mixtures (sourness ratings made under the 2 conditions were essentially identical). Response-context effects for the sour-bitter mixture were nominally intermediate. The magnitudes of these context effects were related to judgments of qualitative similarity between citric acid and the other stimuli, consistent with prior findings. These types of context effects are relevant to the study of taste-taste mixture interactions and should provide insight into the perceptual similarities among the taste qualities.

Chemical Senses, 2009

People are often able to reliably detect a mixture of 2 or more odorants, even if they cannot rel... more People are often able to reliably detect a mixture of 2 or more odorants, even if they cannot reliably detect the individual mixture components when presented individually. This phenomenon has been called mixture agonism. However, for some mixtures, agonism among mixture components is greater in barely detectable mixtures than in more easily detectable mixtures (level dependence). Most studies that have used rigorous methods have focused on simple, 2-component (binary) mixtures. The current work takes the next logical step to study detection of 3-component (ternary) mixtures. Psychometric functions were measured for 5 unmixed compounds and for 3 ternary mixtures of these compounds (2 of 5, forced-choice method). Experimenters used air dilution olfactometry to precisely control the duration and concentration of stimuli and used gas chromatography/mass spectrometry to verify vapor-phase concentrations. For 2 of the 3 mixtures, agonism was approximately additive in general agreement with similar work on binary mixtures. A third mixture was no more detectable than the most detectable component, demonstrating a lack of agonism. None of the 3 mixtures showed evidence of level dependence. Agonism may be common in ternary mixtures, but general rules of mixture interaction have yet to emerge. For now, detection of any mixture must be measured empirically.

Chemosensory Perception

Introduction 3-Mercapto-2-methylpentan-1-ol (3 M) is a key onion flavor (aroma), but past sensory... more Introduction 3-Mercapto-2-methylpentan-1-ol (3 M) is a key onion flavor (aroma), but past sensory work has focused primarily on ortho-nasal presentation. A series of experiments was conducted to characterize human sensitivity to oral 3 M solutions, then determine how 3 M impacts perception of basic tastes. Methods Detection thresholds were measured for a food grade, racemic mixture using a forced-choice staircase procedure (n = 19). Recognition was measured by presenting a single stimulus per trial (3 M, vanillin, or water), with "onion," "vanilla," or "water" as responses (n = 18). Supra-threshold intensity (n = 20) was measured for various concentrations using the general labeled magnitude scale (gLMS). Odor-taste interactions were studied using mixtures of 3 M and exemplars of basic tastes. Participants rated the intensity of basic tastes, or both taste and aroma, using the gLMS (n ranged from 10 to 15). All stimuli were in aqueous solution. Results Participants detected oral 3 M at about 0.90 ppb and recognized 3 M as "onion" at about 5 ppb. Supra-threshold intensity increased roughly as a cumulative logistic function of concentration. 3 M enhanced the rated savory intensity of monosodium glutamate, but did not enhance the dominant qualities of exemplars of the other four basic tastes. Under a response-context more favorable to an analytic approach, savory enhancement was reduced but not eliminated. Savory enhancement was eliminated with nose-clips. Conclusions Oral sensitivity was lower than previous retronasal studies would suggest, but roughly consistent with concentrations in cooked allium varieties. Oral 3 M selectively enhanced savory intensity, an effect likely due to retronasal aroma rather than taste or mouthfeel. Implication 3 M is a promising candidate aroma to enhance or impart a savory flavor.

In three experiments, subjects tracked intensity of nasal irritation during sustained presentatio... more In three experiments, subjects tracked intensity of nasal irritation during sustained presentation of carbon dioxide in the nose. Experiment 1 showed that: (i) functions of peak intensity vs. concentration and latency to first non-zero ratings agreed with published literature, thereby supporting the validity of the technique; (ii) on average, rated intensity peaked ∼3–4 s after stimulus-onset and began to fall rapidly thereafter; (iii) large and stable individual differences in temporal dynamics occurred. Experiment 2 replicated experiment 1 with some methodological refinements. In experiment 3, application of the technique revealed that the nose regains sensitivity with very brief (300–500 ms) interruptions in presentation of carbon dioxide. In short: (i) the method developed here provides a temporally fine-grained tool to study the time-course of nasal irritation, and (ii) nasal irritation from carbon dioxide shows relatively rapid temporal dynamics.

bioRxiv, 2021

Modern natural gas (NG) has little or no odor, so other compounds, usually mercaptans and thiols,... more Modern natural gas (NG) has little or no odor, so other compounds, usually mercaptans and thiols, are added as warning odorants. Federal regulations state that NG must be odorized so that it is readily detectable by people with normal senses of smell at one fifth the lower explosive limit, but regulations don’t define “readily detectable” or “normal senses of smell.” Methods to measure human odor detection have been available for decades. However, most previous work on NG odorants has underestimated human sensitivity, and measurements need to be repeated using the latest methods. More work is also needed to determine how odor sensitivity measured under optimal laboratory conditions is affected by real-world factors such as distraction and exposure to other odors in the environment. Regarding a “normal sense of smell,” healthy people vary over orders of magnitude in the concentrations they can detect, so samples of subjects should be chosen to reflect the range of differences in the ...

Journal of Food Science and Technology

Potassium chloride (KCl) has proven useful as a salty taste replacer to help reduce dietary sodiu... more Potassium chloride (KCl) has proven useful as a salty taste replacer to help reduce dietary sodium. But unlike sodium, which in simple aqueous solutions blocks the perception of bitterness of selected compounds, KCl does not blocker bitterness. We tested the ability of potassium to block bitterness in a more complex translational system by presenting model chicken broths to healthy adults. Broths were presented in three added salt conditions: (1) no added salt, (2) salted with sodium chloride (NaCl), or (3) salted with KCl. To create a model bitter off-taste, four concentrations of L-tryptophan (L-tryp, present in chicken meat) were added to each broth. In Experiment 1, the base broth consisted of chicken flavor only. In Experiment 2, the base broth was more complex, containing savory (umami) ingredients. In both experiments, subjects rated broths with either added NaCl or KCl as saltier than unsalted broths. Only NaCl, however, suppressed bitterness (by about 30%, across a wide range of Ltryp concentrations). Accordingly, when complex foods have sodium reduced and potassium increased to balance salty taste, the bitterness reducing properties of sodium will need to be replaced independently, since potassium does not share this effect.

The American journal of clinical nutrition, Jan 25, 2015

Individuals who adhere to reduced-sodium diets come to prefer less salt over time, but it is uncl... more Individuals who adhere to reduced-sodium diets come to prefer less salt over time, but it is unclear whether sweet taste perception is modulated by reduced sugar intake. The objective was to determine how a substantial reduction in dietary intake of simple sugars affects sweetness intensity and pleasantness of sweet foods and beverages. Healthy men and women aged 21-54 y participated for 5 mo. After the baseline month, 2 subject groups were matched for demographic characteristics, body mass index, and intake of simple sugars. One group (n = 16; 13 of whom completed key experimental manipulations) was randomly assigned to receive a low-sugar diet during the subsequent 3 mo, with instructions to replace 40% of calories from simple sugars with fats, proteins, and complex carbohydrates. The other (control) group (n = 17; 16 of whom completed the study) did not change their sugar intake. During the final month, both groups chose any diet they wished. Each month subjects rated the sweetne...

Chemical senses, 2014

Temperature and chemesthesis interact, but this interaction has not been fully examined for most ... more Temperature and chemesthesis interact, but this interaction has not been fully examined for most irritants. The current experiments focus on oral pungency from carbonation. Previous work showed that cooling carbon dioxide (CO2) solutions to below tongue temperature enhanced rated bite. However, to the best of our knowledge, the effects of warming to above tongue temperature have not been examined. In Experiment 1, subjects sampled CO2 solutions at 4 nominal concentrations (0.0, 2.0, 2.8, and 4.0 v/v) × 5 temperatures (18.3, 24.5, 29.9, 34.5, and 39.6 (o)C). Subjects dipped their tongue tips into samples and rated bite. As in previous work, subjects rated cool solutions (25.0 (o)C and lower) as more intense. Warming solutions above tongue temperature (39.6 (o)C) did not affect ratings. Experiment 2 examined warmer temperatures (18.3, 33.9, 39.0, 44.9, and 48.2 ºC). Bite was enhanced only at 48.2 ºC, and a follow-up experiment suggested that enhancement was probably due to confusion b...

Nutrition Today, 2014

Carbonated beverages (sweetened soft drinks and beer) are undeniably popular, accounting for near... more Carbonated beverages (sweetened soft drinks and beer) are undeniably popular, accounting for nearly ¾ of packaged beverage sales in 2005 despite recent inroads by still drinks such as bottled waters, sports drinks, and teas.1,2 At its peak in 1998, consumption of carbonated beverages was 207.7 L per person per year in the United States.3 Effervescent libations can be quite complex with ingredients including sugars, alcohol, high-intensity sweeteners, and acids. However, the main purpose of this review was to summarize scientific information on the perception and health effects of their 1 common ingredient, dissolved carbon dioxide.

Chemosensory Perception - CHEMOSENS PERCEPT, 2008

Sensory thresholds are defined according to a criterion level of performance in a particular psyc... more Sensory thresholds are defined according to a criterion level of performance in a particular psychophysical task. Thus, thresholds are a function of both subject sensitivity and method. However, relatively few studies have directly compared methods using the same subjects and stimulus. In the current work, thresholds for amyl acetate were measured for 19 subjects using three different methods. Results from a modified method of constant stimuli, which directly measures full detection functions, served as a “gold standard” to establish validity. These results were compared to two less intensive “shortcut” methods, viz., a forced-choice ascending method of limits and a staircase procedure. Both rapid methods produced mean threshold values comparable to those from the method of constant stimuli. Thus, both methods provided a reasonable estimate of average threshold. For characterizing individual differences, the validity of both methods seemed largely limited by their reliability. The s...

Toxicological Sciences, 2005

Two experiments examined integration of perceived irritation over short-term (~100-4000 ms) deliv... more Two experiments examined integration of perceived irritation over short-term (~100-4000 ms) delivery of ammonia into the nasal cavity of human subjects. Experiment 1 examined trade-offs between time and concentration at threshold level by means of nasal lateralization, a common measure of irritation threshold. Within experimental sessions, the duration of a fixed-concentration stimulus varied to determine the shortest, detectable pulse. Subjects could lateralize increasingly weaker concentrations with longer stimulus presentations. Experiment 2 examined an analogous trade-off for supra-threshold irritation. Subjects rated irritation from presentations of ammonia that varied both in concentration and in duration. Rated intensity for a given concentration increased with stimulus duration. Hence integration occurred at both threshold and supra-threshold levels. However, more than a twofold increase in duration was required to compensate for a twofold decrease in concentration to maintain threshold lateralization or a fixed level of perceived intensity. These results suggest that an imperfect mass-integrator model may be able to describe short-term integration of nasal irritation from ammonia at both the threshold and supra-threshold levels. The authors certify that all research involving human subjects was done under full compliance with all government policies and the Helsinki Declaration.

Pulmonary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 2012

PLoS ONE, 2013

Although many people naively assume that the bite of carbonation is due to tactile stimulation of... more Although many people naively assume that the bite of carbonation is due to tactile stimulation of the oral cavity by bubbles, it has become increasingly clear that carbonation bite comes mainly from formation of carbonic acid in the oral mucosa. In Experiment 1, we asked whether bubbles were in fact required to perceive carbonation bite. Subjects rated oral pungency from several concentrations of carbonated water both at normal atmospheric pressure (at which bubbles could form) and at 2.0 atmospheres pressure (at which bubbles did not form). Ratings of carbonation bite under the two pressure conditions were essentially identical, indicating that bubbles are not required for pungency. In Experiment 2, we created controlled streams of air bubbles around the tongue in mildly pungent CO 2 solutions to determine how tactile stimulation from bubbles affects carbonation bite. Since innocuous sensations like light touch and cooling often suppress pain, we predicted that bubbles might reduce rated bite. Contrary to prediction, air bubbles flowing around the tongue significantly enhanced rated bite, without inducing perceived bite in blank (un-carbonated) solutions. Accordingly, though bubbles are clearly not required for carbonation bite, they may well modulate perceived bite. More generally, the results show that innocuous tactile stimulation can enhance chemogenic pain. Possible physiological mechanisms are discussed.

Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 2011

to smoke mentholated cigarettes and more likely to die from lung cancer than their White counterp... more to smoke mentholated cigarettes and more likely to die from lung cancer than their White counterparts (Richardson, 1997), though most epidemiological studies that have controlled for race and other demographic factors have found that smokers of mentholated and nonmentholated cigarettes have similar health outcomes (see Mendiondo, Alexander, & Crawford, 2010). Interestingly, despite similar health outcomes, menthol smokers tend to smoke fewer cigarettes per day (Fagan et al., 2010; Mendiondo et al., 2010), so the question of whether menthol increases risk remains open. Menthol could increase oral absorption of nicotine (Squier, Mantz, & Wertz, 2010), affect physiological responses to nicotine, at least in young animals (Ruskin, Anand, & LaHoste, 2008), and affect nicotine metabolism (Benowitz, Herrera, & Jacob, 2004). These effects could play a role in smoking initiation, addiction, and cessation. Indeed, use of mentholated cigarettes might be associated with greater dependence (according to some measures) and lower quitting rates, especially in non

Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 2013

Introduction: Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke puts children at greater risk for respirato... more Introduction: Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke puts children at greater risk for respiratory tract infection and other illnesses and increases the risk that children later become habitual smokers. Because cough sensitivity may relate to both illness and smoking initiation, we determined whether this vital reflex is impaired in children living with smokers. Methods: A single-inhalation capsaicin challenge was administered to 2 groups of healthy children (16 females, 22 males; 10-17 years old) and parents (25 mothers, 1 father): exposed children (n = 17) and parents (n = 13) who smoked ~10 cigarettes/day; and age-matched children (n = 21) never exposed to smoke at home and parents who never smoked in their lifetimes (n = 13). The lowest capsaicin concentrations that triggered (a) sensations of tingle, sting, or burn (irritation threshold) and (b) at least two coughs (cough threshold) were determined. Results: Cough thresholds were 2 times as high in exposed children (15.00 µM; 95% confidence interval (CI): 9.98-22.55 µM) as in nonETS exposed children (7.31 µM; CI: 5.25-10.19 µM, p = .003). Smoking parents also had higher cough thresholds than never-smoker parents (p = .009). Throat irritation was reported at concentrations below cough threshold for both children and parents. Irritation thresholds did not differ significantly between the two groups of children but were higher for smoking parents than for never-smokers (p = .027). Conclusions: We provide the first evidence that the cough reflex is impaired in seemingly healthy children who live with smokers. The 2-fold difference in cough threshold is comparable in magnitude to the change that occurs with acute respiratory tract infection. We studied two groups of healthy, 10-to 17-year-old children (total 16 females, 22 males; mean age ± SD: 13.4 ± 2.0 years). Participants lived in the Philadelphia area, which has one of the highest youth smoking rates among comparable cities (Philadelphia Department of Public Health, 2010). Children were grouped according to the smoking habits of their parents. One group included children (n = 17) currently exposed to

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2009

Mixture summation among homologous carboxylic acids, that is, the relationship between detection ... more Mixture summation among homologous carboxylic acids, that is, the relationship between detection probabilities for mixtures and detection probabilities for their unmixed components, varies with similarity in carbon-chain length. The current study examined detection of acetic, butyric, hexanoic, and octanoic acids mixed with three other model odorants that differ greatly from the acids in both structure and odor character, namely, 2-hydroxy-3-methylcyclopent-2-en-1-one, furan-2-ylmethanethiol, and (3-methyl-3-sulfanylbutyl) acetate. Psychometric functions were measured for both single compounds and binary mixtures (2 of 5, forced-choice method). An air dilution olfactometer delivered stimuli, with vapor-phase calibration using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Across the three odorants that differed from the acids, acetic and butyric acid showed approximately additive (or perhaps even supra-additive) summation at low perithreshold concentrations, but subadditive interactions at high perithreshold concentrations. In contrast, the medium-chain acids showed subadditive interactions across a wide range of concentrations. Thus, carbon-chain length appears to influence not only summation with other carboxylic acids but also summation with at least some unrelated compounds.

Chemical Senses, 2003

In three experiments, subjects tracked intensity of nasal irritation during sustained presentatio... more In three experiments, subjects tracked intensity of nasal irritation during sustained presentation of carbon dioxide in the nose. Experiment 1 showed that: (i) functions of peak intensity vs. concentration and latency to first non-zero ratings agreed with published literature, thereby supporting the validity of the technique; (ii) on average, rated intensity peaked ∼3-4 s after stimulus-onset and began to fall rapidly thereafter; (iii) large and stable individual differences in temporal dynamics occurred. Experiment 2 replicated experiment 1 with some methodological refinements. In experiment 3, application of the technique revealed that the nose regains sensitivity with very brief (300-500 ms) interruptions in presentation of carbon dioxide. In short: (i) the method developed here provides a temporally fine-grained tool to study the time-course of nasal irritation, and (ii) nasal irritation from carbon dioxide shows relatively rapid temporal dynamics.

Chemical Senses, 2011

Chemical Senses, 2009

Chemosensory Perception

bioRxiv, 2021

Journal of Food Science and Technology

The American journal of clinical nutrition, Jan 25, 2015

Chemical senses, 2014

Nutrition Today, 2014

Chemosensory Perception - CHEMOSENS PERCEPT, 2008

Toxicological Sciences, 2005

Pulmonary Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 2012

PLoS ONE, 2013

Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 2011

Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 2013

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2009

Chemical Senses, 2003

In three experiments, subjects tracked intensity of nasal irritation during sustained presentatio... more In three experiments, subjects tracked intensity of nasal irritation during sustained presentation of carbon dioxide in the nose. Experiment 1 showed that: (i) functions of peak intensity vs. concentration and latency to first non-zero ratings agreed with published literature, thereby supporting the validity of the technique; (ii) on average, rated intensity peaked ∼3-4 s after stimulus-onset and began to fall rapidly thereafter; (iii) large and stable individual differences in temporal dynamics occurred. Experiment 2 replicated experiment 1 with some methodological refinements. In experiment 3, application of the technique revealed that the nose regains sensitivity with very brief (300-500 ms) interruptions in presentation of carbon dioxide. In short: (i) the method developed here provides a temporally fine-grained tool to study the time-course of nasal irritation, and (ii) nasal irritation from carbon dioxide shows relatively rapid temporal dynamics.