Prakash Sundaramurthi - Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by Prakash Sundaramurthi
The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, 2010
Succinate buffer solutions of different initial pH values and concentrations were cooled. The sol... more Succinate buffer solutions of different initial pH values and concentrations were cooled. The solution pH and the phases crystallizing from solution were monitored as a function of temperature. In a solution buffered to pH 4.0 (200 mM), the freeze-concentrate pH initially increased to 8.0 and then decreased to 2.2. On the basis of X-ray diffractometry (synchrotron source), the "pH swing" was attributed to the sequential crystallization of succinic acid, monosodium succinate, and disodium succinate. A similar swing, but in the opposite direction, was seen when a solution with an initial pH of 6.0 was cooled. In this case, crystallization of the basic buffer component occurred first. The direction and magnitude of the pH shift depended on both the initial pH and the buffer concentration. In light of the pH-sensitive nature of a significant fraction of pharmaceuticals (especially proteins), extreme care is needed, both in the buffer selection and in its concentration.
Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 2012
Lyophilization is a commonly used drying technique for thermolabile pharmaceuticals. Crystallizat... more Lyophilization is a commonly used drying technique for thermolabile pharmaceuticals. Crystallization of formulation components may occur during various stages of the freeze-drying process. In frozen solutions, while crystallization of bulking agents is desirable, both from processing and product-elegance perspectives, buffer salt crystallization can cause a significant pH shift. Lyoprotectants (compounds that protect macromolecules, both during freeze-drying and subsequent storage) are effective only when retained amorphous. This review presents numerous applications of differential scanning calorimetry to characterize pharmaceutical systems in frozen state. These studies are aimed at defining the processing parameters and optimizing the freeze-drying cycle. Low temperature pH measurement and sub-ambient X-ray diffractometry served as excellent complementary tools in the characterization of frozen systems. The phase behavior of the systems during annealing (of frozen solutions), primary and secondary drying were monitored by X-ray diffractometry. Finally, the interplay of formulation composition and processing parameters on the development and optimization of freeze-drying cycles are reviewed.
Pharmaceutical Development and Technology, 2006
Drug nanoparticles embedded in a dispersant matrix as a secondary phase, i.e., drugladen nanocomp... more Drug nanoparticles embedded in a dispersant matrix as a secondary phase, i.e., drugladen nanocomposites, offer a versatile delivery platform for enhancing the dissolution rate and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs. Drug nanoparticles are prepared by top-down, bottom-up, or combinative approaches in the form of nanosuspensions, which are subsequently dried to prepare drug-laden nanocomposites. In this comprehensive review paper, the term "nanocomposites" is used in a broad context to cover drug nanoparticle-laden intermediate products in the form of powders, cakes, and extrudates, which can be incorporated into final oral solid dosages via standard pharmaceutical unit operations, as well as drug nanoparticle-laden strip films. The objective of this paper is to review studies from 2012-2017 in the field of drug-laden nanocomposites. After a brief overview of the various approaches used for preparing drug nanoparticles, the review covers drying processes and dispersant formulations used for the production of drug-laden nanocomposites, as well as various characterization methods including quiescent and agitated redispersion tests. Traditional dispersants such as soluble polymers, surfactants, other water-soluble dispersants, and water-insoluble dispersants, as well as novel dispersants such as wet-milled superdisintegrants, are covered. They exhibit various functionalities such as drug nanoparticle stabilization, mitigation of aggregation, formation of nanocomposite matrix-film, wettability enhancement, and matrix erosion/disintegration. Major challenges such as nanoparticle aggregation and poor redispersibility that cause inferior dissolution performance of the drug-laden nanocomposites are highlighted. Literature data are analyzed in terms of usage frequency of various drying processes and dispersant classes. We provide some engineering considerations in comparing drying processes, which could account for some of the diverging trends in academia vs. industrial practice. Overall, this review provides rationale and guidance for drying process selection and robust nanocomposite formulation development, with insights into the roles of various classes of dispersants.
amino acid buffers in sub-zero temperatures – relevance to frozen state stabilization. J Phys Che... more amino acid buffers in sub-zero temperatures – relevance to frozen state stabilization. J Phys Chem B. May 11 (Epub). Sundaramurthi, P., and Suryanarayanan, R. 2011. Predicting the crystallization propensity of carboxylic acid buffers in frozen systems – relevance to freeze-drying. J Pham Sci. 100, 1288-1293. Sundaramurthi, P., and Suryanarayanan, R. 2011. The effect of crystallizing and noncrystallizing cosolutes on succinate buffer crystallization and the consequent pH shift in frozen
Journal of Oncology Pharmacy Practice
Introduction Pembrolizumab is an anti-PD-1 monoclonal antibody, approved and under development fo... more Introduction Pembrolizumab is an anti-PD-1 monoclonal antibody, approved and under development for numerous indications in oncology. It is available as either lyophilized powder for reconstitution or ready-to-use solution. Both are required to be diluted in saline or dextrose solution prior to intravenous infusion. After dilution, the recommendation per summary of product characteristics is 24 h at 2–8℃ and 6 h at room temperature. The purpose of this study was to investigate the physicochemical stability of pembrolizumab diluted solution (1 mg/mL) at both refrigerated and room temperature conditions for an extended period. Methods Under aseptic conditions, pembrolizumab was diluted in 250 mL of saline injection in polyolefin bags to obtain the final protein concentration of 1 mg/mL. Thus, prepared bags were then stored at either 5℃ ± 3℃, refrigerator exposing the product to ambient light or room temperature (20℃ ± 3℃) on the benchtop. Results Using several analytical methods, it wa...
Pharmaceutical Research, Sep 8, 2010
Purpose To study the influence of crystallizing and noncrystallizing cosolutes on the crystalliza... more Purpose To study the influence of crystallizing and noncrystallizing cosolutes on the crystallization behavior of trehalose in frozen solutions and to monitor the phase behavior of trehalose dihydrate and mannitol hemihydrate during drying. Methods Trehalose (a lyoprotectant) and mannitol (a bulking agent) are widely used as excipients in freeze-dried formulations. Using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffractometry (XRD), the crystallization behavior of trehalose in the presence of (i) a crystallizing (mannitol), (ii) a non-crystallizing (sucrose) solute and (iii) a combination of mannitol and a model protein (lactose dehydrogenase, catalase, or lysozyme) was evaluated. By performing the entire freeze-drying cycle in the sample chamber of the XRD, the phase behavior of trehalose and mannitol were simultaneously monitored. Results When an aqueous solution containing trehalose (4% w/v) and mannitol (2% w/v) was cooled to −40°C at 0.5°C/min, hexagonal ice was the only crystalline phase. However, upon warming the sample to the annealing temperature (−18°C), crystallization of mannitol hemihydrate was readily evident. After 3 h of annealing, the characteristic XRD peaks of trehalose dihydrate were also observed. The DSC heating curve of frozen and annealed solution showed two overlapping endotherms, attributed by XRD to the sequential melting of trehalose dihydrate-ice and mannitol hemihydrate-ice eutectics, followed by ice melting. While mannitol facilitated trehalose dihydrate crystallization, sucrose completely inhibited it. In the presence of protein (2 mg/ml), trehalose crystallization required a longer annealing time. When the freeze-drying was performed in the sample chamber of the diffractometer, drying induced the dehydration of trehalose dihydrate to amorphous anhydrate. However, the final lyophiles prepared in the laboratory lyophilizer contained trehalose dihydrate and mannitol hemihydrate. Conclusions Using XRD and DSC, the sequential crystallization of ice, mannitol hemihydrate, and trehalose dihydrate was observed in frozen solutions. Mannitol, by readily crystallizing as a hemihydrate, accelerated trehalose dihydrate crystallization in frozen solutions. However, by remaining amorphous, sucrose completely inhibited trehalose dihydrate crystallization. Crystallization of the lyoprotectantt in the model protein formulations might have serious implications on protein stability. KEY WORDS dehydration. DSC. mannitol hemihydrate. processing. protein. trehalose dihydrate. XRD
The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, Mar 1, 2010
Sequential crystallization of succinate buffer components in the frozen solution has been studied... more Sequential crystallization of succinate buffer components in the frozen solution has been studied by differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffractometry (both laboratory and synchrotron sources). The consequential pH shifts were monitored using a low-temperature electrode. When a solution buffered to pH < pK a2 was cooled from room temperature (RT), the freeze-concentrate pH first increased and then decreased. This was attributed to the sequential crystallization of succinic acid, monosodium succinate, and finally disodium succinate. When buffered to pH > pK a2 , the freeze-concentrate pH first decreased and then increased due to the sequential crystallization of the basic (disodium succinate) followed by the acidic (monosodium succinate and succinic acid) buffer components. XRD provided direct evidence of the crystallization events in the frozen buffer solutions, including the formation of disodium succinate hexahydrate [Na 2 (CH 2 COO) 2 • 6H 2 O]. When the frozen solution was warmed in a differential scanning calorimeter, multiple endotherms attributable to the melting of buffer components and ice were observed. When the frozen solutions were dried under reduced pressure, ice sublimation was followed by dehydration of the crystalline hexahydrate to a poorly crystalline anhydrate. However, crystalline succinic acid and monosodium succinate were retained in the final lyophiles. The pH and the buffer salt concentration of the prelyo solution influenced the crystalline salt content in the final lyophile. The direction and magnitude of the pH shift in the frozen solution depended on both the initial pH and the buffer concentration. In light of the pH-sensitive nature of a significant fraction of pharmaceuticals (especially proteins), extreme care is needed in both the buffer selection and its concentration.
Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2014
According to label claims, in commercial solid dosage forms, azithromycin (AZI) exists either as ... more According to label claims, in commercial solid dosage forms, azithromycin (AZI) exists either as a monohydrate (MH) or as a dihydrate (DH). Although these two forms are known to be relatively stable in the solid state, AZI sesquihydrate (SH) was observed in a drug product. This was believed to be a consequence of a processing-induced phase transformation. Our goal was to prepare and characterize AZI SH and map its solid-state transition pathways with other AZI phases. When dehydrated at temperatures &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt;80°C, DH yielded an isomorphic dehydrate, whereas dehydration at ≥80°C yielded SH. Heating SH to 100°C or holding at 0% RH at room temperature, yielded an amorphous product through an intermediate isomorphic dehydrate, isostructural to SH. On the other hand, dehydration of MH (at ≥60°C) resulted in amorphization with no intermediate crystalline anhydrate. Diagnostic XRD peaks of AH, MH, SH, and DH enabled their unambiguous identification. However, the presence of crystalline excipients hindered active pharmaceutical ingredient characterization in drug product. Pattern subtraction method was used to selectively remove the contribution of the crystalline excipients to the overall diffraction pattern, thereby facilitating the physical characterization of AZI in the drug product.
The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 2011
Macromolecules and other thermolabile biologicals are often buffered and stored in frozen or drie... more Macromolecules and other thermolabile biologicals are often buffered and stored in frozen or dried (freeze-dried) state. Crystallization of buffer components in frozen aqueous solutions and the consequent pH shifts were studied in carboxylic (succinic, malic, citric, tartaric acid) and amino acid (glycine, histidine) buffers. Aqueous buffer solutions were cooled from room temperature (RT) to -25 °C and the pH of the solution was measured as a function of temperature. The thermal behavior of frozen solutions was investigated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and the crystallized phases were identified by X-ray diffractometry (XRD). Based on the solubility of the neutral species of each buffer system over a range of temperatures, it was possible to estimate its degree of supersaturation at the subambient temperature of interest. This enabled us to predict its crystallization propensity in frozen systems. The experimental and the predicted rank orderings were in excellent agreement. The malate buffer system was robust with no evidence of buffer component crystallization and hence negligible pH shift. In the citrate and tartrate systems, at initial pH &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt; pK(a)(2), only the most acidic buffer component (neutral form) crystallized on cooling, causing an increase in the freeze-concentrate pH. In glycine buffer solutions, when the initial pH was ∼3 units &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt; isoelectric pH (pI = 5.9), β-glycine crystallization caused a small decrease in pH, while a similar effect but in the opposite direction was observed when the initial pH was ∼3 units &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;gt; pI. In the histidine buffer system, depending on the initial pH, either histidine or histidine HCl crystallized.
Pharmaceutical Research, 2010
Purpose To study the influence of crystallizing and noncrystallizing cosolutes on the crystalliza... more Purpose To study the influence of crystallizing and noncrystallizing cosolutes on the crystallization behavior of trehalose in frozen solutions and to monitor the phase behavior of trehalose dihydrate and mannitol hemihydrate during drying. Methods Trehalose (a lyoprotectant) and mannitol (a bulking agent) are widely used as excipients in freeze-dried formulations. Using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffractometry (XRD), the crystallization behavior of trehalose in the presence of (i) a crystallizing (mannitol), (ii) a non-crystallizing (sucrose) solute and (iii) a combination of mannitol and a model protein (lactose dehydrogenase, catalase, or lysozyme) was evaluated. By performing the entire freeze-drying cycle in the sample chamber of the XRD, the phase behavior of trehalose and mannitol were simultaneously monitored. Results When an aqueous solution containing trehalose (4% w/v) and mannitol (2% w/v) was cooled to −40°C at 0.5°C/min, hexagonal ice was the only crystalline phase. However, upon warming the sample to the annealing temperature (−18°C), crystallization of mannitol hemihydrate was readily evident. After 3 h of annealing, the characteristic XRD peaks of trehalose dihydrate were also observed. The DSC heating curve of frozen and annealed solution showed two overlapping endotherms, attributed by XRD to the sequential melting of trehalose dihydrate-ice and mannitol hemihydrate-ice eutectics, followed by ice melting. While mannitol facilitated trehalose dihydrate crystallization, sucrose completely inhibited it. In the presence of protein (2 mg/ml), trehalose crystallization required a longer annealing time. When the freeze-drying was performed in the sample chamber of the diffractometer, drying induced the dehydration of trehalose dihydrate to amorphous anhydrate. However, the final lyophiles prepared in the laboratory lyophilizer contained trehalose dihydrate and mannitol hemihydrate. Conclusions Using XRD and DSC, the sequential crystallization of ice, mannitol hemihydrate, and trehalose dihydrate was observed in frozen solutions. Mannitol, by readily crystallizing as a hemihydrate, accelerated trehalose dihydrate crystallization in frozen solutions. However, by remaining amorphous, sucrose completely inhibited trehalose dihydrate crystallization. Crystallization of the lyoprotectantt in the model protein formulations might have serious implications on protein stability. KEY WORDS dehydration. DSC. mannitol hemihydrate. processing. protein. trehalose dihydrate. XRD
Pharmaceutical Research, 2011
Purpose To effectively inhibit succinate buffer crystallization and the consequent pH changes in ... more Purpose To effectively inhibit succinate buffer crystallization and the consequent pH changes in frozen solutions. Methods Using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and Xray diffractometry (XRD), the crystallization behavior of succinate buffer in the presence of either (i) a crystallizing (glycine, mannitol, trehalose) or (ii) a non-crystallizing cosolute (sucrose) was evaluated. Aqueous succinate buffer solutions, 50 or 200 mM, at pH values 4.0 or 6.0 were cooled from room temperature to −25°C at 0.5°C/min. The pH of the solution was measured as a function of temperature using a probe designed to function at low temperatures. The final lyophiles prepared from these solutions were characterized using synchrotron radiation. Results When the succinic acid solution buffered to pH 4.0, in the absence of a cosolute, was cooled, there was a pronounced shift in the freeze-concentrate pH. Glycine and mannitol, which have a tendency to crystallize in frozen solutions, remained amorphous when the initial pH was 6.0. Under this condition, they also inhibited buffer crystallization and prevented pH change. At pH 4.0 (50 mM initial concentration), glycine and mannitol crystallized and did not prevent pH change in frozen solutions. While sucrose, a noncrystallizing cosolute, did not completely prevent buffer crystallization, the extent of crystallization was reduced. Sucrose decomposition, based on XRD peaks attributable to β-D-glucose, was observed in frozen buffer solutions with an initial pH of 4.0. Trehalose completely inhibited crystallization of the buffer components when the initial pH was 6.0 but not at pH 4.0. At the lower pH, the crystallization of both trehalose dihydrate and buffer components was evident. Conclusion When retained amorphous, sucrose and trehalose effectively inhibited succinate buffer component crystallization and the consequent pH shift. However, when trehalose crystallized or sucrose degraded to yield a crystalline decomposition product, crystallization of buffer was observed. Similarly, glycine and mannitol, two widely used bulking agents, inhibited buffer component crystallization only when retained amorphous. In addition to stabilizing the active pharmaceutical ingredient, lyoprotectants may prevent solution pH shift by inhibiting buffer crystallization.
Pharmaceutical Research, 2007
Purpose. (1) To determine the effect of solution pH before lyophilization, over the range of 1.5 ... more Purpose. (1) To determine the effect of solution pH before lyophilization, over the range of 1.5 to 10, on the salt and polymorphic forms of glycine crystallizing in frozen solutions and in lyophiles. (2) To quantify glycine crystallization during freezing and annealing as a function of solution pH before lyophilization. (3) To study the effect of phosphate buffer concentration on the extent of glycine crystallization before and after annealing. Materials and Methods. Glycine solutions (10% w/v), with initial pH ranging from 1.5 to 10, were cooled to j50-C, and the crystallized glycine phases were identified using a laboratory X-ray source. Over the same pH range, glycine phases in lyophiles obtained from annealed solutions (0.25, 2 and 10% w/v glycine), were characterized by synchrotron X-ray diffractometry (SXRD). In the pH range of 3.0 to 5.9, the extent of glycine crystallization during annealing was monitored by SXRD. Additionally, the effect of phosphate buffer concentration (50 to 200 mM) on the extent of glycine crystallization during freezing, followed by annealing, was determined. Results. In frozen solutions, b-glycine was detected when the initial solution pH was Q 4. In the lyophiles, in addition to band g-glycine, glycine HCl, diglycine HCl, and sodium glycinate were also identified. In the pH range of 3.0 to 5.9, decreasing the pH reduced the extent of glycine crystallization in the frozen solution. When the initial pH was fixed at 7.4, and the buffer concentration was increased from 50 to 200 mM, the extent of glycine crystallization in frozen solutions decreased with an increase in buffer concentration. Conclusion. Both solution pH and solute concentration before lyophilization influenced the salt and polymorphic forms of glycine crystallizing in frozen solutions and in lyophiles. The extent of glycine crystallization in frozen solutions was affected by the initial pH and buffer concentration of solutions. The high sensitivity of SXRD allowed simultaneous detection and quantification of multiple crystalline phases.
Pharmaceutical Research, 2009
Purpose. (1) To develop a synchrotron X-ray diffraction (SXRD) method to monitor phase transition... more Purpose. (1) To develop a synchrotron X-ray diffraction (SXRD) method to monitor phase transitions during the entire freeze-drying cycle. Aqueous sodium phosphate buffered glycine solutions with initial glycine to buffer molar ratios of 1:3 (17:50 mM), 1:1 (50 mM) and 3:1 were utilized as model systems. (2) To investigate the effect of initial solute concentration on the crystallization of glycine and phosphate buffer salt during lyophilization. Methods. Phosphate buffered glycine solutions were placed in a custom-designed sample cell for freezedrying. The sample cell, covered with a stainless steel dome with a beryllium window, was placed on a stage capable of controlled cooling and vacuum drying. The samples were cooled to −50°C and annealed at −20°C. They underwent primary drying at −25°C under vacuum until ice sublimation was complete and secondary drying from 0 to 25°C. At different stages of the freeze-drying cycle, the samples were periodically exposed to synchrotron X-ray radiation. An image plate detector was used to obtain timeresolved two-dimensional SXRD patterns. The ice, β-glycine and DHPD phases were identified based on their unique X-ray peaks. Results. When the solutions were cooled and annealed, ice formation was followed by crystallization of disodium hydrogen phosphate dodecahydrate (DHPD). In the primary drying stage, a significant increase in DHPD crystallization followed by incomplete dehydration to amorphous disodium hydrogen phosphate was evident. Complete dehydration of DHPD occurred during secondary drying. Glycine crystallization was inhibited throughout freeze-drying when the initial buffer concentration (1:3 glycine to buffer) was higher than that of glycine. Conclusion. A high-intensity X-ray diffraction method was developed to monitor the phase transitions during the entire freeze-drying cycle. The high sensitivity of SXRD allowed us to monitor all the crystalline phases simultaneously. While DHPD crystallizes in frozen solution, it dehydrates incompletely during primary drying and completely during secondary drying. The impact of initial solute concentration on the phase composition during the entire freeze-drying cycle was quantified.
Pharmaceutical Research, 2010
Purpose (i) To study the crystallization of trehalose in frozen solutions and (ii) to understand ... more Purpose (i) To study the crystallization of trehalose in frozen solutions and (ii) to understand the phase transitions during the entire freeze-drying cycle. Method Aqueous trehalose solution was cooled to −40°C in a custom-designed sample holder. The frozen solution was warmed to −18°C and annealed, and then dried in the sample chamber of the diffractometer. XRD patterns were continuously collected during cooling, annealing and drying. Results After cooling, hexagonal ice was the only crystalline phase observed. However, upon annealing, crystallization of trehalose dihydrate was evident. Seeding the frozen solution accelerated the solute crystallization. Thus, phase separation of the lyoprotectant was observed in frozen solutions. During drying, dehydration of trehalose dihydrate yielded a substantially amorphous anhydrous trehalose. Conclusions Crystallization of trehalose, as trehalose dihydrate, was observed in frozen solutions. The dehydration of the crystalline trehalose dihydrate to substantially amorphous anhydrate occurred during drying. Therefore, analyzing the final lyophile will not reveal crystallization of the lyoprotectant during freeze-drying. The lyoprotectant crystallization can only become evident by continuous monitoring of the system during the entire freeze-drying cycle. In light of the phase separation of trehalose in frozen solutions, its ability to serve as a lyoprotectant warrants further investigation.
Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2011
Selective crystallization of buffer components in frozen solutions is known to cause pronounced p... more Selective crystallization of buffer components in frozen solutions is known to cause pronounced pH shifts. Our objective was to study the crystallization behavior and the consequent pH shift in frozen aqueous carboxylic acid buffers. Aqueous carboxylic acid buffers were cooled to -25°C and the pH of the solution was measured as a function of temperature. The thermal behavior of solutions during freezing and thawing was investigated by differential scanning calorimetry. The crystallized phases in frozen solution were identified by X-ray diffractometry. The malate buffer system was robust with no evidence of buffer component crystallization and hence negligible pH shift. In the citrate and tartarate systems, at initial pH &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt;pKa2 , only the most acidic buffer component (neutral form) crystallized on cooling, causing an increase in the freeze-concentrate pH. Carboxylic acid buffers were rank ordered based on their propensity to crystallize in frozen solutions. From the aqueous solubility values of these carboxylic acids, which have been reported over a range of temperatures, it was also possible to estimate the degree of supersaturation at the subambient temperature of interest. This enabled us to predict their crystallization propensity in frozen systems. The experimental and the predicted rank orderings were in excellent agreement.
Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2012
The purpose of this study was to perform physical characterization of pentamidine isethionate (PI... more The purpose of this study was to perform physical characterization of pentamidine isethionate (PI) in frozen and freeze-dried systems and to monitor the phase behavior during all the stages of freeze-drying. Frozen aqueous PI solutions as well as the final lyophiles were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffractometry. The effect of cosolutes, cosolvents, and processing conditions on the PI crystallization behavior during freeze-drying was evaluated. In frozen aqueous solutions, irrespective of the cooling rate and the initial solute concentration, PI readily crystallized as a trihydrate (C 19 H 24 N 4 O 2 •3H 2 O). It dehydrated to a poorly crystalline anhydrate upon drying at 100 mTorr. The presence of a readily crystallizing cosolute or an organic cosolvent did not influence the physical form of PI in the final lyophile. On the contrary, even in the absence of cosolutes and cosolvents, the crystalline trihydrate was retained when the chamber pressure was increased to 500 mTorr. By altering the drying conditions, it was possible to obtain either a crystalline trihydrate or a poorly crystalline anhydrate. The stability of PI is dependent on its physical form and only the amorphous PI undergoes discoloration. The PI stability can be enhanced by retaining it in a crystalline state in the lyophile.
The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters, 2010
Succinate buffer solutions of different initial pH values and concentrations were cooled. The sol... more Succinate buffer solutions of different initial pH values and concentrations were cooled. The solution pH and the phases crystallizing from solution were monitored as a function of temperature. In a solution buffered to pH 4.0 (200 mM), the freeze-concentrate pH initially increased to 8.0 and then decreased to 2.2. On the basis of X-ray diffractometry (synchrotron source), the "pH swing" was attributed to the sequential crystallization of succinic acid, monosodium succinate, and disodium succinate. A similar swing, but in the opposite direction, was seen when a solution with an initial pH of 6.0 was cooled. In this case, crystallization of the basic buffer component occurred first. The direction and magnitude of the pH shift depended on both the initial pH and the buffer concentration. In light of the pH-sensitive nature of a significant fraction of pharmaceuticals (especially proteins), extreme care is needed, both in the buffer selection and in its concentration.
Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 2012
Lyophilization is a commonly used drying technique for thermolabile pharmaceuticals. Crystallizat... more Lyophilization is a commonly used drying technique for thermolabile pharmaceuticals. Crystallization of formulation components may occur during various stages of the freeze-drying process. In frozen solutions, while crystallization of bulking agents is desirable, both from processing and product-elegance perspectives, buffer salt crystallization can cause a significant pH shift. Lyoprotectants (compounds that protect macromolecules, both during freeze-drying and subsequent storage) are effective only when retained amorphous. This review presents numerous applications of differential scanning calorimetry to characterize pharmaceutical systems in frozen state. These studies are aimed at defining the processing parameters and optimizing the freeze-drying cycle. Low temperature pH measurement and sub-ambient X-ray diffractometry served as excellent complementary tools in the characterization of frozen systems. The phase behavior of the systems during annealing (of frozen solutions), primary and secondary drying were monitored by X-ray diffractometry. Finally, the interplay of formulation composition and processing parameters on the development and optimization of freeze-drying cycles are reviewed.
Pharmaceutical Development and Technology, 2006
Drug nanoparticles embedded in a dispersant matrix as a secondary phase, i.e., drugladen nanocomp... more Drug nanoparticles embedded in a dispersant matrix as a secondary phase, i.e., drugladen nanocomposites, offer a versatile delivery platform for enhancing the dissolution rate and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs. Drug nanoparticles are prepared by top-down, bottom-up, or combinative approaches in the form of nanosuspensions, which are subsequently dried to prepare drug-laden nanocomposites. In this comprehensive review paper, the term "nanocomposites" is used in a broad context to cover drug nanoparticle-laden intermediate products in the form of powders, cakes, and extrudates, which can be incorporated into final oral solid dosages via standard pharmaceutical unit operations, as well as drug nanoparticle-laden strip films. The objective of this paper is to review studies from 2012-2017 in the field of drug-laden nanocomposites. After a brief overview of the various approaches used for preparing drug nanoparticles, the review covers drying processes and dispersant formulations used for the production of drug-laden nanocomposites, as well as various characterization methods including quiescent and agitated redispersion tests. Traditional dispersants such as soluble polymers, surfactants, other water-soluble dispersants, and water-insoluble dispersants, as well as novel dispersants such as wet-milled superdisintegrants, are covered. They exhibit various functionalities such as drug nanoparticle stabilization, mitigation of aggregation, formation of nanocomposite matrix-film, wettability enhancement, and matrix erosion/disintegration. Major challenges such as nanoparticle aggregation and poor redispersibility that cause inferior dissolution performance of the drug-laden nanocomposites are highlighted. Literature data are analyzed in terms of usage frequency of various drying processes and dispersant classes. We provide some engineering considerations in comparing drying processes, which could account for some of the diverging trends in academia vs. industrial practice. Overall, this review provides rationale and guidance for drying process selection and robust nanocomposite formulation development, with insights into the roles of various classes of dispersants.
amino acid buffers in sub-zero temperatures – relevance to frozen state stabilization. J Phys Che... more amino acid buffers in sub-zero temperatures – relevance to frozen state stabilization. J Phys Chem B. May 11 (Epub). Sundaramurthi, P., and Suryanarayanan, R. 2011. Predicting the crystallization propensity of carboxylic acid buffers in frozen systems – relevance to freeze-drying. J Pham Sci. 100, 1288-1293. Sundaramurthi, P., and Suryanarayanan, R. 2011. The effect of crystallizing and noncrystallizing cosolutes on succinate buffer crystallization and the consequent pH shift in frozen
Journal of Oncology Pharmacy Practice
Introduction Pembrolizumab is an anti-PD-1 monoclonal antibody, approved and under development fo... more Introduction Pembrolizumab is an anti-PD-1 monoclonal antibody, approved and under development for numerous indications in oncology. It is available as either lyophilized powder for reconstitution or ready-to-use solution. Both are required to be diluted in saline or dextrose solution prior to intravenous infusion. After dilution, the recommendation per summary of product characteristics is 24 h at 2–8℃ and 6 h at room temperature. The purpose of this study was to investigate the physicochemical stability of pembrolizumab diluted solution (1 mg/mL) at both refrigerated and room temperature conditions for an extended period. Methods Under aseptic conditions, pembrolizumab was diluted in 250 mL of saline injection in polyolefin bags to obtain the final protein concentration of 1 mg/mL. Thus, prepared bags were then stored at either 5℃ ± 3℃, refrigerator exposing the product to ambient light or room temperature (20℃ ± 3℃) on the benchtop. Results Using several analytical methods, it wa...
Pharmaceutical Research, Sep 8, 2010
Purpose To study the influence of crystallizing and noncrystallizing cosolutes on the crystalliza... more Purpose To study the influence of crystallizing and noncrystallizing cosolutes on the crystallization behavior of trehalose in frozen solutions and to monitor the phase behavior of trehalose dihydrate and mannitol hemihydrate during drying. Methods Trehalose (a lyoprotectant) and mannitol (a bulking agent) are widely used as excipients in freeze-dried formulations. Using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffractometry (XRD), the crystallization behavior of trehalose in the presence of (i) a crystallizing (mannitol), (ii) a non-crystallizing (sucrose) solute and (iii) a combination of mannitol and a model protein (lactose dehydrogenase, catalase, or lysozyme) was evaluated. By performing the entire freeze-drying cycle in the sample chamber of the XRD, the phase behavior of trehalose and mannitol were simultaneously monitored. Results When an aqueous solution containing trehalose (4% w/v) and mannitol (2% w/v) was cooled to −40°C at 0.5°C/min, hexagonal ice was the only crystalline phase. However, upon warming the sample to the annealing temperature (−18°C), crystallization of mannitol hemihydrate was readily evident. After 3 h of annealing, the characteristic XRD peaks of trehalose dihydrate were also observed. The DSC heating curve of frozen and annealed solution showed two overlapping endotherms, attributed by XRD to the sequential melting of trehalose dihydrate-ice and mannitol hemihydrate-ice eutectics, followed by ice melting. While mannitol facilitated trehalose dihydrate crystallization, sucrose completely inhibited it. In the presence of protein (2 mg/ml), trehalose crystallization required a longer annealing time. When the freeze-drying was performed in the sample chamber of the diffractometer, drying induced the dehydration of trehalose dihydrate to amorphous anhydrate. However, the final lyophiles prepared in the laboratory lyophilizer contained trehalose dihydrate and mannitol hemihydrate. Conclusions Using XRD and DSC, the sequential crystallization of ice, mannitol hemihydrate, and trehalose dihydrate was observed in frozen solutions. Mannitol, by readily crystallizing as a hemihydrate, accelerated trehalose dihydrate crystallization in frozen solutions. However, by remaining amorphous, sucrose completely inhibited trehalose dihydrate crystallization. Crystallization of the lyoprotectantt in the model protein formulations might have serious implications on protein stability. KEY WORDS dehydration. DSC. mannitol hemihydrate. processing. protein. trehalose dihydrate. XRD
The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, Mar 1, 2010
Sequential crystallization of succinate buffer components in the frozen solution has been studied... more Sequential crystallization of succinate buffer components in the frozen solution has been studied by differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffractometry (both laboratory and synchrotron sources). The consequential pH shifts were monitored using a low-temperature electrode. When a solution buffered to pH < pK a2 was cooled from room temperature (RT), the freeze-concentrate pH first increased and then decreased. This was attributed to the sequential crystallization of succinic acid, monosodium succinate, and finally disodium succinate. When buffered to pH > pK a2 , the freeze-concentrate pH first decreased and then increased due to the sequential crystallization of the basic (disodium succinate) followed by the acidic (monosodium succinate and succinic acid) buffer components. XRD provided direct evidence of the crystallization events in the frozen buffer solutions, including the formation of disodium succinate hexahydrate [Na 2 (CH 2 COO) 2 • 6H 2 O]. When the frozen solution was warmed in a differential scanning calorimeter, multiple endotherms attributable to the melting of buffer components and ice were observed. When the frozen solutions were dried under reduced pressure, ice sublimation was followed by dehydration of the crystalline hexahydrate to a poorly crystalline anhydrate. However, crystalline succinic acid and monosodium succinate were retained in the final lyophiles. The pH and the buffer salt concentration of the prelyo solution influenced the crystalline salt content in the final lyophile. The direction and magnitude of the pH shift in the frozen solution depended on both the initial pH and the buffer concentration. In light of the pH-sensitive nature of a significant fraction of pharmaceuticals (especially proteins), extreme care is needed in both the buffer selection and its concentration.
Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2014
According to label claims, in commercial solid dosage forms, azithromycin (AZI) exists either as ... more According to label claims, in commercial solid dosage forms, azithromycin (AZI) exists either as a monohydrate (MH) or as a dihydrate (DH). Although these two forms are known to be relatively stable in the solid state, AZI sesquihydrate (SH) was observed in a drug product. This was believed to be a consequence of a processing-induced phase transformation. Our goal was to prepare and characterize AZI SH and map its solid-state transition pathways with other AZI phases. When dehydrated at temperatures &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt;80°C, DH yielded an isomorphic dehydrate, whereas dehydration at ≥80°C yielded SH. Heating SH to 100°C or holding at 0% RH at room temperature, yielded an amorphous product through an intermediate isomorphic dehydrate, isostructural to SH. On the other hand, dehydration of MH (at ≥60°C) resulted in amorphization with no intermediate crystalline anhydrate. Diagnostic XRD peaks of AH, MH, SH, and DH enabled their unambiguous identification. However, the presence of crystalline excipients hindered active pharmaceutical ingredient characterization in drug product. Pattern subtraction method was used to selectively remove the contribution of the crystalline excipients to the overall diffraction pattern, thereby facilitating the physical characterization of AZI in the drug product.
The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 2011
Macromolecules and other thermolabile biologicals are often buffered and stored in frozen or drie... more Macromolecules and other thermolabile biologicals are often buffered and stored in frozen or dried (freeze-dried) state. Crystallization of buffer components in frozen aqueous solutions and the consequent pH shifts were studied in carboxylic (succinic, malic, citric, tartaric acid) and amino acid (glycine, histidine) buffers. Aqueous buffer solutions were cooled from room temperature (RT) to -25 °C and the pH of the solution was measured as a function of temperature. The thermal behavior of frozen solutions was investigated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and the crystallized phases were identified by X-ray diffractometry (XRD). Based on the solubility of the neutral species of each buffer system over a range of temperatures, it was possible to estimate its degree of supersaturation at the subambient temperature of interest. This enabled us to predict its crystallization propensity in frozen systems. The experimental and the predicted rank orderings were in excellent agreement. The malate buffer system was robust with no evidence of buffer component crystallization and hence negligible pH shift. In the citrate and tartrate systems, at initial pH &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt; pK(a)(2), only the most acidic buffer component (neutral form) crystallized on cooling, causing an increase in the freeze-concentrate pH. In glycine buffer solutions, when the initial pH was ∼3 units &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt; isoelectric pH (pI = 5.9), β-glycine crystallization caused a small decrease in pH, while a similar effect but in the opposite direction was observed when the initial pH was ∼3 units &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;gt; pI. In the histidine buffer system, depending on the initial pH, either histidine or histidine HCl crystallized.
Pharmaceutical Research, 2010
Purpose To study the influence of crystallizing and noncrystallizing cosolutes on the crystalliza... more Purpose To study the influence of crystallizing and noncrystallizing cosolutes on the crystallization behavior of trehalose in frozen solutions and to monitor the phase behavior of trehalose dihydrate and mannitol hemihydrate during drying. Methods Trehalose (a lyoprotectant) and mannitol (a bulking agent) are widely used as excipients in freeze-dried formulations. Using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffractometry (XRD), the crystallization behavior of trehalose in the presence of (i) a crystallizing (mannitol), (ii) a non-crystallizing (sucrose) solute and (iii) a combination of mannitol and a model protein (lactose dehydrogenase, catalase, or lysozyme) was evaluated. By performing the entire freeze-drying cycle in the sample chamber of the XRD, the phase behavior of trehalose and mannitol were simultaneously monitored. Results When an aqueous solution containing trehalose (4% w/v) and mannitol (2% w/v) was cooled to −40°C at 0.5°C/min, hexagonal ice was the only crystalline phase. However, upon warming the sample to the annealing temperature (−18°C), crystallization of mannitol hemihydrate was readily evident. After 3 h of annealing, the characteristic XRD peaks of trehalose dihydrate were also observed. The DSC heating curve of frozen and annealed solution showed two overlapping endotherms, attributed by XRD to the sequential melting of trehalose dihydrate-ice and mannitol hemihydrate-ice eutectics, followed by ice melting. While mannitol facilitated trehalose dihydrate crystallization, sucrose completely inhibited it. In the presence of protein (2 mg/ml), trehalose crystallization required a longer annealing time. When the freeze-drying was performed in the sample chamber of the diffractometer, drying induced the dehydration of trehalose dihydrate to amorphous anhydrate. However, the final lyophiles prepared in the laboratory lyophilizer contained trehalose dihydrate and mannitol hemihydrate. Conclusions Using XRD and DSC, the sequential crystallization of ice, mannitol hemihydrate, and trehalose dihydrate was observed in frozen solutions. Mannitol, by readily crystallizing as a hemihydrate, accelerated trehalose dihydrate crystallization in frozen solutions. However, by remaining amorphous, sucrose completely inhibited trehalose dihydrate crystallization. Crystallization of the lyoprotectantt in the model protein formulations might have serious implications on protein stability. KEY WORDS dehydration. DSC. mannitol hemihydrate. processing. protein. trehalose dihydrate. XRD
Pharmaceutical Research, 2011
Purpose To effectively inhibit succinate buffer crystallization and the consequent pH changes in ... more Purpose To effectively inhibit succinate buffer crystallization and the consequent pH changes in frozen solutions. Methods Using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and Xray diffractometry (XRD), the crystallization behavior of succinate buffer in the presence of either (i) a crystallizing (glycine, mannitol, trehalose) or (ii) a non-crystallizing cosolute (sucrose) was evaluated. Aqueous succinate buffer solutions, 50 or 200 mM, at pH values 4.0 or 6.0 were cooled from room temperature to −25°C at 0.5°C/min. The pH of the solution was measured as a function of temperature using a probe designed to function at low temperatures. The final lyophiles prepared from these solutions were characterized using synchrotron radiation. Results When the succinic acid solution buffered to pH 4.0, in the absence of a cosolute, was cooled, there was a pronounced shift in the freeze-concentrate pH. Glycine and mannitol, which have a tendency to crystallize in frozen solutions, remained amorphous when the initial pH was 6.0. Under this condition, they also inhibited buffer crystallization and prevented pH change. At pH 4.0 (50 mM initial concentration), glycine and mannitol crystallized and did not prevent pH change in frozen solutions. While sucrose, a noncrystallizing cosolute, did not completely prevent buffer crystallization, the extent of crystallization was reduced. Sucrose decomposition, based on XRD peaks attributable to β-D-glucose, was observed in frozen buffer solutions with an initial pH of 4.0. Trehalose completely inhibited crystallization of the buffer components when the initial pH was 6.0 but not at pH 4.0. At the lower pH, the crystallization of both trehalose dihydrate and buffer components was evident. Conclusion When retained amorphous, sucrose and trehalose effectively inhibited succinate buffer component crystallization and the consequent pH shift. However, when trehalose crystallized or sucrose degraded to yield a crystalline decomposition product, crystallization of buffer was observed. Similarly, glycine and mannitol, two widely used bulking agents, inhibited buffer component crystallization only when retained amorphous. In addition to stabilizing the active pharmaceutical ingredient, lyoprotectants may prevent solution pH shift by inhibiting buffer crystallization.
Pharmaceutical Research, 2007
Purpose. (1) To determine the effect of solution pH before lyophilization, over the range of 1.5 ... more Purpose. (1) To determine the effect of solution pH before lyophilization, over the range of 1.5 to 10, on the salt and polymorphic forms of glycine crystallizing in frozen solutions and in lyophiles. (2) To quantify glycine crystallization during freezing and annealing as a function of solution pH before lyophilization. (3) To study the effect of phosphate buffer concentration on the extent of glycine crystallization before and after annealing. Materials and Methods. Glycine solutions (10% w/v), with initial pH ranging from 1.5 to 10, were cooled to j50-C, and the crystallized glycine phases were identified using a laboratory X-ray source. Over the same pH range, glycine phases in lyophiles obtained from annealed solutions (0.25, 2 and 10% w/v glycine), were characterized by synchrotron X-ray diffractometry (SXRD). In the pH range of 3.0 to 5.9, the extent of glycine crystallization during annealing was monitored by SXRD. Additionally, the effect of phosphate buffer concentration (50 to 200 mM) on the extent of glycine crystallization during freezing, followed by annealing, was determined. Results. In frozen solutions, b-glycine was detected when the initial solution pH was Q 4. In the lyophiles, in addition to band g-glycine, glycine HCl, diglycine HCl, and sodium glycinate were also identified. In the pH range of 3.0 to 5.9, decreasing the pH reduced the extent of glycine crystallization in the frozen solution. When the initial pH was fixed at 7.4, and the buffer concentration was increased from 50 to 200 mM, the extent of glycine crystallization in frozen solutions decreased with an increase in buffer concentration. Conclusion. Both solution pH and solute concentration before lyophilization influenced the salt and polymorphic forms of glycine crystallizing in frozen solutions and in lyophiles. The extent of glycine crystallization in frozen solutions was affected by the initial pH and buffer concentration of solutions. The high sensitivity of SXRD allowed simultaneous detection and quantification of multiple crystalline phases.
Pharmaceutical Research, 2009
Purpose. (1) To develop a synchrotron X-ray diffraction (SXRD) method to monitor phase transition... more Purpose. (1) To develop a synchrotron X-ray diffraction (SXRD) method to monitor phase transitions during the entire freeze-drying cycle. Aqueous sodium phosphate buffered glycine solutions with initial glycine to buffer molar ratios of 1:3 (17:50 mM), 1:1 (50 mM) and 3:1 were utilized as model systems. (2) To investigate the effect of initial solute concentration on the crystallization of glycine and phosphate buffer salt during lyophilization. Methods. Phosphate buffered glycine solutions were placed in a custom-designed sample cell for freezedrying. The sample cell, covered with a stainless steel dome with a beryllium window, was placed on a stage capable of controlled cooling and vacuum drying. The samples were cooled to −50°C and annealed at −20°C. They underwent primary drying at −25°C under vacuum until ice sublimation was complete and secondary drying from 0 to 25°C. At different stages of the freeze-drying cycle, the samples were periodically exposed to synchrotron X-ray radiation. An image plate detector was used to obtain timeresolved two-dimensional SXRD patterns. The ice, β-glycine and DHPD phases were identified based on their unique X-ray peaks. Results. When the solutions were cooled and annealed, ice formation was followed by crystallization of disodium hydrogen phosphate dodecahydrate (DHPD). In the primary drying stage, a significant increase in DHPD crystallization followed by incomplete dehydration to amorphous disodium hydrogen phosphate was evident. Complete dehydration of DHPD occurred during secondary drying. Glycine crystallization was inhibited throughout freeze-drying when the initial buffer concentration (1:3 glycine to buffer) was higher than that of glycine. Conclusion. A high-intensity X-ray diffraction method was developed to monitor the phase transitions during the entire freeze-drying cycle. The high sensitivity of SXRD allowed us to monitor all the crystalline phases simultaneously. While DHPD crystallizes in frozen solution, it dehydrates incompletely during primary drying and completely during secondary drying. The impact of initial solute concentration on the phase composition during the entire freeze-drying cycle was quantified.
Pharmaceutical Research, 2010
Purpose (i) To study the crystallization of trehalose in frozen solutions and (ii) to understand ... more Purpose (i) To study the crystallization of trehalose in frozen solutions and (ii) to understand the phase transitions during the entire freeze-drying cycle. Method Aqueous trehalose solution was cooled to −40°C in a custom-designed sample holder. The frozen solution was warmed to −18°C and annealed, and then dried in the sample chamber of the diffractometer. XRD patterns were continuously collected during cooling, annealing and drying. Results After cooling, hexagonal ice was the only crystalline phase observed. However, upon annealing, crystallization of trehalose dihydrate was evident. Seeding the frozen solution accelerated the solute crystallization. Thus, phase separation of the lyoprotectant was observed in frozen solutions. During drying, dehydration of trehalose dihydrate yielded a substantially amorphous anhydrous trehalose. Conclusions Crystallization of trehalose, as trehalose dihydrate, was observed in frozen solutions. The dehydration of the crystalline trehalose dihydrate to substantially amorphous anhydrate occurred during drying. Therefore, analyzing the final lyophile will not reveal crystallization of the lyoprotectant during freeze-drying. The lyoprotectant crystallization can only become evident by continuous monitoring of the system during the entire freeze-drying cycle. In light of the phase separation of trehalose in frozen solutions, its ability to serve as a lyoprotectant warrants further investigation.
Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2011
Selective crystallization of buffer components in frozen solutions is known to cause pronounced p... more Selective crystallization of buffer components in frozen solutions is known to cause pronounced pH shifts. Our objective was to study the crystallization behavior and the consequent pH shift in frozen aqueous carboxylic acid buffers. Aqueous carboxylic acid buffers were cooled to -25°C and the pH of the solution was measured as a function of temperature. The thermal behavior of solutions during freezing and thawing was investigated by differential scanning calorimetry. The crystallized phases in frozen solution were identified by X-ray diffractometry. The malate buffer system was robust with no evidence of buffer component crystallization and hence negligible pH shift. In the citrate and tartarate systems, at initial pH &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;lt;pKa2 , only the most acidic buffer component (neutral form) crystallized on cooling, causing an increase in the freeze-concentrate pH. Carboxylic acid buffers were rank ordered based on their propensity to crystallize in frozen solutions. From the aqueous solubility values of these carboxylic acids, which have been reported over a range of temperatures, it was also possible to estimate the degree of supersaturation at the subambient temperature of interest. This enabled us to predict their crystallization propensity in frozen systems. The experimental and the predicted rank orderings were in excellent agreement.
Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2012
The purpose of this study was to perform physical characterization of pentamidine isethionate (PI... more The purpose of this study was to perform physical characterization of pentamidine isethionate (PI) in frozen and freeze-dried systems and to monitor the phase behavior during all the stages of freeze-drying. Frozen aqueous PI solutions as well as the final lyophiles were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffractometry. The effect of cosolutes, cosolvents, and processing conditions on the PI crystallization behavior during freeze-drying was evaluated. In frozen aqueous solutions, irrespective of the cooling rate and the initial solute concentration, PI readily crystallized as a trihydrate (C 19 H 24 N 4 O 2 •3H 2 O). It dehydrated to a poorly crystalline anhydrate upon drying at 100 mTorr. The presence of a readily crystallizing cosolute or an organic cosolvent did not influence the physical form of PI in the final lyophile. On the contrary, even in the absence of cosolutes and cosolvents, the crystalline trihydrate was retained when the chamber pressure was increased to 500 mTorr. By altering the drying conditions, it was possible to obtain either a crystalline trihydrate or a poorly crystalline anhydrate. The stability of PI is dependent on its physical form and only the amorphous PI undergoes discoloration. The PI stability can be enhanced by retaining it in a crystalline state in the lyophile.