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Papers by Rudolf Gustavsson
Journal of Maritime Archaeology, 2022
The use of marine mammal bone as a raw material in the manufacturing of gaming pieces in the Scan... more The use of marine mammal bone as a raw material in the manufacturing of gaming pieces in the Scandinavian late Iron Age has been observed and discussed in recent years. New empirical studies have created a chronology as well as a typology showing how the design of the gaming pieces is tightly connected to different choices of raw material; from antler in the Roman and Migration periods, to whale bone in the sixth century, and walrus in the tenth century. Macroscopic examination can, however, rarely go beyond determining that the material is ‘cetacean bone’. The following article presents the taxonomic identifications of 68 samples of whale bone gaming pieces, determined using Zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry analysis. The results demonstrate the consistent use of bones from Balaenidae sp. most probably the North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis). This paper presents strong evidence for active, large-scale hunting of whales in Scandinavia, starting in the sixth century. The manufacture of gaming pieces was probably not the driver for the hunt, but merely a by-product that has survived in the archaeological record. Of greater importance were probably baleen, meat, and blubber that could be rendered into oil. This oil might have been an additional trading product in the far-reaching trade networks that were developing during the period. This study supports previous studies suggesting that Iron Age and medieval trade and resource exploitation had a much more severe influence on ecosystems than previously expected. It adds additional insights into anthropogenic impact on mammal populations in prehistory.
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
Discussions of pre-Viking trade and production have for many decades focused on products made of ... more Discussions of pre-Viking trade and production have for many decades focused on products made of precious metals, glass and, to some degree, iron. This is hardly surprising considering the difficulties in finding and provenancing products made of organic matter. In this article we examine gaming pieces made from bone and antler, which are not unusual in Scandinavian burials in the Vendel and Viking period (c. ad 550–1050). A special emphasis is placed on whalebone pieces that appear to dominate after around ad 550, signalling a large-scale production and exploitation of North Atlantic whale products. In combination with other goods such as bear furs, birds of prey, and an increased iron and tar production, whalebone products are part of an intensified large-scale outland exploitation and indicate strong, pre-urban trading routes across Scandinavia and Europe some 200 years before the Viking period and well before the age of the emporia.
Field report from the 2014 exacavations at Landsjö Castle, Kimstad parish, Östergötland, Sweden.
Gaming pieces from the late Iron Age are frequently found in burials and most often interpreted a... more Gaming pieces from the late Iron Age are frequently found in burials and most often interpreted as made of antler or bone (from large terrestrial animals) without any further analysis of the material being made. When studying the gaming pieces and the raw material in detail, we have sometimes noticed than none of the above mentioned materials correspond with the bone structure of the artefacts found. Influenced from recent studies of gaming pieces from the Salme boat burials, we decided to study the raw material of some 40 gaming pieces found in a large burial mound in Gnista, just outside Uppsala. The study sheds light on a little known large scale production of whale bone products during the Vendel period. It highlights Viking age whale bone handicrafts and, importantly, the long distance trading networks of Scandinavia during this period.
Books by Rudolf Gustavsson
Brandgravar vid Storby backe – osteologisk analysUtbyggnad av Ostkustbanangenom Gamla UppsalaRapport 2017:1_13 Arkeologisk undersökningUppsala län; Uppland; Uppsala kommun; Uppsala socken; Uppsala 134:4, 240:1, 284:2, 586:1, 597:1, 603:1, 604:1, 605:1 och 606:1, 2017
Den undersökta delen av gravfältet vid Storby backe utgör den nordligaste delen av det gravfält s... more Den undersökta delen av gravfältet vid Storby backe utgör den nordligaste delen av det gravfält som ingick i OKB-undersökningarna i Gamla Uppsala 2012–2013. Benmaterial framkom i totalt 124 begravningar från 110 gravar. I de flesta gravarna fanns endast en begravning men i åtta av gravar framkom två till fem begravningar. I begreppet grav ingår samtliga beståndsdelar tillhörande det inre och yttre gravskicket såsom överbyggnad, begravning/ar och eventuella sekundära depositioner. Med begravning avses den del av graven som innehåller den eller de gravlagda individerna. Det kan t.ex. röra sig om ett brandlager, och/eller fyllning i urna eller brandgrop. Analysen omfattade totalt 89 484,2 gram ben, varav 89 143,9 gram var brända och 340,7 gram var obrända. Benvikten per begravning varierade mellan 0,3 och 12 599,6 gram per grav. Fem gravar som var intakta eller relativt intakta, stod för drygt 37 515 gram av den totala benvikten. Artförekomst räknat i vikt per art i gravarna visar följande fördelning i fallande ordning: människa, häst, hund, svin, får/get, nötkreatur, tamhöna, katt, gädda, björn, duvhök, får, alfågel, berg uv, pilgrimsfalk, ekorre, sik och strömming. Följande artgrupper påträffades men fanns inte representerade bland de artbestämda benen ovan: andfågel, hjortdjur, gåsfågel, karpfisk, trastfågel och liten gnagare. Variationen i kombinationen av arter i begravningarna var stor. De två vanligaste artkombinationerna var människa och hund samt människa, hund och svin. Därefter kom människa och häst. Oftast har en till tre individer (människa/djur) begravts i en och samma begravning. Detta gällde för 67 % av begravningarna. I 20 % av gravarna identifierades minst fyra till fem individer. I resterande begravningarna hade sex till arton individer gravlagts. Åldern vid dödstillfället kunde bedömas för sammanlagt 115 av de 122 identifierade människorna i begravningarna. Den största ålders-gruppen var unga vuxna till medelålders vuxna (20–50 år). De två näst största grupperna var barn (0–14 år) och medelålders till äldre vuxna (35 år och äldre). Endast 16 % av det totala antalet gravlagda människor kunde köns-bedömas. Av de 20 som kunnat könsbedömas var tio män och fyra kvinnor. De övriga sex individerna hade tvetydiga könskaraktärer. Patologier, skelettförändringar och trauman fanns endast på ben från människa. Drygt 30 individer uppvisade olika typer av patologier eller andra förändringar i skelettet, bl.a. icke-specifik benreaktion, ledförändringar, benskörhet, anemier, olika typer av förändringar i munhålan och tillväxtrubbningar. Trauma i form av huggspår registrerades på ett rörbensfragment från en människa.
During the autumn of 2013 Upplandsmuseet, in collaboration with SAU (Societas Archaeologica Upsal... more During the autumn of 2013 Upplandsmuseet, in collaboration with SAU (Societas Archaeologica Upsaliensis) investigated Burial ground 62 as well as parts of 127 and 227, Danmark Parish, in the southeast outskirts of Uppsala. The excavated features included a very large burial mound dating from the late 6th century CE, cremations from 700 – 1000 CE, and inhumations from the 10th to 13th centuries CE. Apart from purely archaeological methods, a number of assisting sciences and methods were utilised. When excavating skeletons we adopted a system of field anthropology. Apart from radiocarbon dating, a number were sampled for stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes. Osteology as well as macro fossil, wood anatomy and phosphate analyses were used. In addition a careful analysis of the different layers making up the mound and GIS-analysis were used to achieve a new and relevant understanding about burial customs and rituals, as well as social and religions conditions, both local regional, during a period of political and religious change. In the southeast edge of Burial grounds 62/127 we excavated a large burial mound 18,5 metres wide and 3 metres high and dating from the late 6th century CE. The funeral pyre had contained a grown male, accompanied by several horses, dogs, birds of prey, pigs and sheep. Artefacts were extremely fragmented by cremation, but among 800 grams of bronze we also found gilded objects with mounted garnets. Parts of a helmet, sword, shield as well as elaborate horse equipment were identified. Among other objects were imported glass, ceramics and whale bone gaming pieces. The mound had been erected in three phases, using clay from marine deposits, presumably from the lake that existed south of the area at the time. This lake was an important communication route for access to the Baltic coast as well as the inland communities of Gamla Uppsala, Valsgärde and Vendel, via various river systems. In the following centuries, the area around the mound was used as a burial ground. Four cremation burials dating from 700 – 1000 CE were excavated and found to be severely damaged by modern landscaping. Burial customs influenced by Christianity included inhumations and began to appear in the 10th century. Up until the 13th century 28 individuals were buried within the excavated parts of Burial grounds 62/127. They were of all ages and biological sexes. In the 12th century a further 12 individuals were buried within Burial ground 227. These early inhumations display great variety in terms of burial customs, body posture and body orientation. Individuals were buried with or without coffins. Very few artefacts were found in the graves. Isotope analysis indicated a substantial diet of fresh water fish. A very peculiar burial from the 12th or 13th century involved an individual who had been partially cremated in a body sized pit, along with both animals and objects.
The results of the investigation are discussed along the three areas within which new and important knowledge has been gained:
• Human lives – Skeletons and burnt bones. The conditions of people’s lives, health and diet are studied.
• Aristocratic environments – The large mound and the rune stone are discussed to highlight social structures in the Uppsala area during the Late Iron Age.
• Religious conversion – Rituals in an era of change. The long period of use provides an opportunity to generate new and relevant knowledge about burial rituals and the Christian conversion progress, as well as testing currently held views on the conversion in the region.
Journal of Maritime Archaeology, 2022
The use of marine mammal bone as a raw material in the manufacturing of gaming pieces in the Scan... more The use of marine mammal bone as a raw material in the manufacturing of gaming pieces in the Scandinavian late Iron Age has been observed and discussed in recent years. New empirical studies have created a chronology as well as a typology showing how the design of the gaming pieces is tightly connected to different choices of raw material; from antler in the Roman and Migration periods, to whale bone in the sixth century, and walrus in the tenth century. Macroscopic examination can, however, rarely go beyond determining that the material is ‘cetacean bone’. The following article presents the taxonomic identifications of 68 samples of whale bone gaming pieces, determined using Zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry analysis. The results demonstrate the consistent use of bones from Balaenidae sp. most probably the North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis). This paper presents strong evidence for active, large-scale hunting of whales in Scandinavia, starting in the sixth century. The manufacture of gaming pieces was probably not the driver for the hunt, but merely a by-product that has survived in the archaeological record. Of greater importance were probably baleen, meat, and blubber that could be rendered into oil. This oil might have been an additional trading product in the far-reaching trade networks that were developing during the period. This study supports previous studies suggesting that Iron Age and medieval trade and resource exploitation had a much more severe influence on ecosystems than previously expected. It adds additional insights into anthropogenic impact on mammal populations in prehistory.
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
Discussions of pre-Viking trade and production have for many decades focused on products made of ... more Discussions of pre-Viking trade and production have for many decades focused on products made of precious metals, glass and, to some degree, iron. This is hardly surprising considering the difficulties in finding and provenancing products made of organic matter. In this article we examine gaming pieces made from bone and antler, which are not unusual in Scandinavian burials in the Vendel and Viking period (c. ad 550–1050). A special emphasis is placed on whalebone pieces that appear to dominate after around ad 550, signalling a large-scale production and exploitation of North Atlantic whale products. In combination with other goods such as bear furs, birds of prey, and an increased iron and tar production, whalebone products are part of an intensified large-scale outland exploitation and indicate strong, pre-urban trading routes across Scandinavia and Europe some 200 years before the Viking period and well before the age of the emporia.
Field report from the 2014 exacavations at Landsjö Castle, Kimstad parish, Östergötland, Sweden.
Gaming pieces from the late Iron Age are frequently found in burials and most often interpreted a... more Gaming pieces from the late Iron Age are frequently found in burials and most often interpreted as made of antler or bone (from large terrestrial animals) without any further analysis of the material being made. When studying the gaming pieces and the raw material in detail, we have sometimes noticed than none of the above mentioned materials correspond with the bone structure of the artefacts found. Influenced from recent studies of gaming pieces from the Salme boat burials, we decided to study the raw material of some 40 gaming pieces found in a large burial mound in Gnista, just outside Uppsala. The study sheds light on a little known large scale production of whale bone products during the Vendel period. It highlights Viking age whale bone handicrafts and, importantly, the long distance trading networks of Scandinavia during this period.
Brandgravar vid Storby backe – osteologisk analysUtbyggnad av Ostkustbanangenom Gamla UppsalaRapport 2017:1_13 Arkeologisk undersökningUppsala län; Uppland; Uppsala kommun; Uppsala socken; Uppsala 134:4, 240:1, 284:2, 586:1, 597:1, 603:1, 604:1, 605:1 och 606:1, 2017
Den undersökta delen av gravfältet vid Storby backe utgör den nordligaste delen av det gravfält s... more Den undersökta delen av gravfältet vid Storby backe utgör den nordligaste delen av det gravfält som ingick i OKB-undersökningarna i Gamla Uppsala 2012–2013. Benmaterial framkom i totalt 124 begravningar från 110 gravar. I de flesta gravarna fanns endast en begravning men i åtta av gravar framkom två till fem begravningar. I begreppet grav ingår samtliga beståndsdelar tillhörande det inre och yttre gravskicket såsom överbyggnad, begravning/ar och eventuella sekundära depositioner. Med begravning avses den del av graven som innehåller den eller de gravlagda individerna. Det kan t.ex. röra sig om ett brandlager, och/eller fyllning i urna eller brandgrop. Analysen omfattade totalt 89 484,2 gram ben, varav 89 143,9 gram var brända och 340,7 gram var obrända. Benvikten per begravning varierade mellan 0,3 och 12 599,6 gram per grav. Fem gravar som var intakta eller relativt intakta, stod för drygt 37 515 gram av den totala benvikten. Artförekomst räknat i vikt per art i gravarna visar följande fördelning i fallande ordning: människa, häst, hund, svin, får/get, nötkreatur, tamhöna, katt, gädda, björn, duvhök, får, alfågel, berg uv, pilgrimsfalk, ekorre, sik och strömming. Följande artgrupper påträffades men fanns inte representerade bland de artbestämda benen ovan: andfågel, hjortdjur, gåsfågel, karpfisk, trastfågel och liten gnagare. Variationen i kombinationen av arter i begravningarna var stor. De två vanligaste artkombinationerna var människa och hund samt människa, hund och svin. Därefter kom människa och häst. Oftast har en till tre individer (människa/djur) begravts i en och samma begravning. Detta gällde för 67 % av begravningarna. I 20 % av gravarna identifierades minst fyra till fem individer. I resterande begravningarna hade sex till arton individer gravlagts. Åldern vid dödstillfället kunde bedömas för sammanlagt 115 av de 122 identifierade människorna i begravningarna. Den största ålders-gruppen var unga vuxna till medelålders vuxna (20–50 år). De två näst största grupperna var barn (0–14 år) och medelålders till äldre vuxna (35 år och äldre). Endast 16 % av det totala antalet gravlagda människor kunde köns-bedömas. Av de 20 som kunnat könsbedömas var tio män och fyra kvinnor. De övriga sex individerna hade tvetydiga könskaraktärer. Patologier, skelettförändringar och trauman fanns endast på ben från människa. Drygt 30 individer uppvisade olika typer av patologier eller andra förändringar i skelettet, bl.a. icke-specifik benreaktion, ledförändringar, benskörhet, anemier, olika typer av förändringar i munhålan och tillväxtrubbningar. Trauma i form av huggspår registrerades på ett rörbensfragment från en människa.
During the autumn of 2013 Upplandsmuseet, in collaboration with SAU (Societas Archaeologica Upsal... more During the autumn of 2013 Upplandsmuseet, in collaboration with SAU (Societas Archaeologica Upsaliensis) investigated Burial ground 62 as well as parts of 127 and 227, Danmark Parish, in the southeast outskirts of Uppsala. The excavated features included a very large burial mound dating from the late 6th century CE, cremations from 700 – 1000 CE, and inhumations from the 10th to 13th centuries CE. Apart from purely archaeological methods, a number of assisting sciences and methods were utilised. When excavating skeletons we adopted a system of field anthropology. Apart from radiocarbon dating, a number were sampled for stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes. Osteology as well as macro fossil, wood anatomy and phosphate analyses were used. In addition a careful analysis of the different layers making up the mound and GIS-analysis were used to achieve a new and relevant understanding about burial customs and rituals, as well as social and religions conditions, both local regional, during a period of political and religious change. In the southeast edge of Burial grounds 62/127 we excavated a large burial mound 18,5 metres wide and 3 metres high and dating from the late 6th century CE. The funeral pyre had contained a grown male, accompanied by several horses, dogs, birds of prey, pigs and sheep. Artefacts were extremely fragmented by cremation, but among 800 grams of bronze we also found gilded objects with mounted garnets. Parts of a helmet, sword, shield as well as elaborate horse equipment were identified. Among other objects were imported glass, ceramics and whale bone gaming pieces. The mound had been erected in three phases, using clay from marine deposits, presumably from the lake that existed south of the area at the time. This lake was an important communication route for access to the Baltic coast as well as the inland communities of Gamla Uppsala, Valsgärde and Vendel, via various river systems. In the following centuries, the area around the mound was used as a burial ground. Four cremation burials dating from 700 – 1000 CE were excavated and found to be severely damaged by modern landscaping. Burial customs influenced by Christianity included inhumations and began to appear in the 10th century. Up until the 13th century 28 individuals were buried within the excavated parts of Burial grounds 62/127. They were of all ages and biological sexes. In the 12th century a further 12 individuals were buried within Burial ground 227. These early inhumations display great variety in terms of burial customs, body posture and body orientation. Individuals were buried with or without coffins. Very few artefacts were found in the graves. Isotope analysis indicated a substantial diet of fresh water fish. A very peculiar burial from the 12th or 13th century involved an individual who had been partially cremated in a body sized pit, along with both animals and objects.
The results of the investigation are discussed along the three areas within which new and important knowledge has been gained:
• Human lives – Skeletons and burnt bones. The conditions of people’s lives, health and diet are studied.
• Aristocratic environments – The large mound and the rune stone are discussed to highlight social structures in the Uppsala area during the Late Iron Age.
• Religious conversion – Rituals in an era of change. The long period of use provides an opportunity to generate new and relevant knowledge about burial rituals and the Christian conversion progress, as well as testing currently held views on the conversion in the region.