Ram Shrestha - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Ram Shrestha

Environmental Economics and Policy Studies, 2002

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Mathematical Modelling, 1987

Policies for managing a renewable resource in the presence of a backstop substitute are analysed.... more Policies for managing a renewable resource in the presence of a backstop substitute are analysed. Conditions for renewable and backstop resources to be "relevant" are discussed. The extinction issue, the role of myopic decision rules and the optimality of singular arc policies are reexamined with non-autonomous prices.

Resources and Energy, 1986

Some qualitative comparative static properties of two renewable resource management models (homog... more Some qualitative comparative static properties of two renewable resource management models (homogenous., heterogeoous bromass) are derived. The effects of economic and environmental changes on stocking. maintenance, rotation and continuous harvest policies are considered. A simple synthetic model is developed which examines the long-run role of continuous restocking.

Energy Economics, 1990

This paper examines the role of sectoral shift and improvements in energy intensity of individual... more This paper examines the role of sectoral shift and improvements in energy intensity of individual industries in aggregate manufacturing sector energy intensity changes in Taiwan during 1971–1985. The Divisia index approach is employed to decompose sectoral shift and energy intensity effects. A major finding of this analysis is that changes in energy intensities of individual industries were the main influence in changes in aggregate manufacturing sector fuel and electricity intensities during the period. Sectoral shifts were found to contribute very little to the energy intensity changes.

Paediatrics and Child Health, 2008

The majority of renal tract problems in childhood are congenital in origin with an overall incide... more The majority of renal tract problems in childhood are congenital in origin with an overall incidence of 2e4 per 1000 live births. Some anomalies may occur in isolation e.g. posterior urethral valves; whilst others may be part of a more complex spectrum of anomalies e.g. duplex or horseshoe kidney in VACTERL or VATER association. Prenatal screening has highlighted an increasing number of children with renal tract anomalies which may require paediatric specialist involvement in the immediate postnatal period. Most congenital renal tract problems are managed by paediatric urologists and paediatric surgeons with a special interest in urology.

Climate Policy Assessment, 2003

The Japanese Journal of Surgery, 1987

The antitumor effects of two polyamine antimetabolites, alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) and ... more The antitumor effects of two polyamine antimetabolites, alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) and methylglyoxal-bis-guanylhydrazone (MGBG), when combined with cis-diamminedichlroplatinum (CDDP) or mitomycin C (MMC), were studied using human gastric cancer cells xenotransplanted into nude mice. DFMO 1000 mg/kg and MGBG 50 mg/kg were given intraperitoneally for 6 successive days, while CDDP 3 mg/kg or MMC 2 mg/kg was given every second day. Although DFMO and MGBG plus MMC did suppress the tumor growth, the combination with CDDP led to no suppression, and rapid growth occurred after the cessation of therapy. The inhibition of tumoral DNA biosynthesis and a decline in polyamine levels, were also not observed. The polyamine antimetabolites when used with CDDP did not produce the desired antitumor efficacy, even though the platinum concentration in the tumor tissue was high. On the contrary, however, DFMO and MGBG when combined with MMC did suppress tumor growth, inhibited DNA biosynthesis, and tissue polyamine levels were low. These results suggest that though CDDP and MMC belong to a similar category of DNA attacking, bifunctional alkylating agents, the findings of these two drugs are contradictory. Here, the mechanism of action no doubt plays a contributory role.

Encyclopedia of Earth Science, 1999

International Journal of Cancer, 1985

The antitumor effects of alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), methylglyoxal-bis-guanylhydrazone ... more The antitumor effects of alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), methylglyoxal-bis-guanylhydrazone (MGBG) and mitomycin C (MMC), administered separately or in various combinations, on human stomach cancer cells xenotransplanted into BALB/c nude mice were studied using the protocol of Battelle's Columbus Laboratories (Ovejera et al., 1978). DFMO (1,000 mg/kg in 2 divided doses) and MGBG (50 mg/kg) were given Intraperitoneally (i. p.) for 7 consecutive days from the time when the tumor weighed about 100 mg. MMC (2 mg/kg) was given i. p. every other day from the same time. Animals treated with either DFMO or MGBG alone displayed tumor growth comparable to that seen in untreated controls. In mice treated with DFMO plus MGBG with or without MMC, or in mice treated only with MMC, tumor growth was significantly lower than in untreated mice. In the group which received only combined DFMO/MGBG there was a rapid regrowth of the tumor after termination of therapy. Tumor putrescine levels decreased within 4 days following the administration of DFMO; however, spermidine levels did not decline with either DFMO or MGBG treatment even after 7 days. When combined DFMO/MGBG was given, there was a significant decline in spermidine levels 7 days after the initiation of treatment. In contrast, when MMC alone was administered, putrescine and spermidine levels in the tumor did not differ from those in control mice. Spermine decreased markedly in tumor with the combined administration of DFMO/MGBG as well as with combined DFMO/MGBG/MMC, but decreased only slightly when MMC alone or MMC plus either DFMO or MGBG was administered. By the 7th treatment day, DNA biosynthesis in the tumor had dropped markedly in all groups except those receiving DFMO or MGBG alone.

Cancer, 1985

We prepared biodegradable microspheres containing about 5% mitomycin C (MMC) and of 45 f 8 pm in ... more We prepared biodegradable microspheres containing about 5% mitomycin C (MMC) and of 45 f 8 pm in diameter. These preparations were infused into the rat hepatic artery as a preclinical model of intra-arterial infusion treatment for patients with inoperable hepatic tumor. The leaked MMC levels in the hepatic vein decreased below the assay limitation 2 hours after conventional MMC injection, whereas in the case of MMC microsphere the leaked drug levels were maintained at almost the same concentration for over 2 hours after infusion. The entrapped period of MMC microspheres within the hepatic artery was at least 2 weeks, and the necrobiotic foci due to antitumor effects of the condensed MMC released from the microspheres were observed in the area fed by these entrapped arterioles. This phenomenon was never observed in the case of conventional MMC and placebo microspheres. Intra-arterial infusion of MMC microspheres may be a promising clinical treatment for patients with malignant hepatic tumor.

Annals of Surgery, 1991

Intraoperative pelvic hyperthermochemotherapy (IOPHC) with mitomycin C (MMC) was prescribed for 1... more Intraoperative pelvic hyperthermochemotherapy (IOPHC) with mitomycin C (MMC) was prescribed for 14 patients with re-sectable advanced rectal cancer in an attempt to prevent a post-operative local recurrence. Immediately after rectal amputation and extended lymphadenectomy, ...

Cancer, 1989

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Annals of Surgery, 1990

... Hyperthermia is particularly effective for human can-cers, when applied with chemotherapy.&am... more ... Hyperthermia is particularly effective for human can-cers, when applied with chemotherapy." 0 However diffi-culties are encountered when attempting to apply hyper-thermia for lesions of the abdominal cavity with its var-iously shaped organs. Spratt et al.' Koga et al.,' and 595 ...

Annals of Surgery, 1988

Fifteen patients with far-advanced gastric cancer were given surgical treatment followed by intra... more Fifteen patients with far-advanced gastric cancer were given surgical treatment followed by intraperitoneal hyperthermic perfusion (IPHP) with mitomycin C (MMC) and misonidazole (MIS), a thermosensitizing drug. Immediately after extensive resection of the abdominal tumors, a 2-hour IPHP was performed at the inflow temperature of 44.7 to 48.7 C, using equipment designed for treatment of cancerous peritoneal seeding as a closed circuit, and under hypothermic general anesthesia at 30 to 31 C. In nine of the 15 patients with peritoneal seeding and/or ascites, cancerous ascites was absent after this treatment. In all cases, repeated cytologic examinations of the lavage from Douglas's pouch were negative. The postoperative courses were uneventful except for Patients 1 and 10, in whom slight leakage occurred. All patients were discharged and are in good health at the time of this writing, 7.2 +/- 4.6 months after the treatment. The Case 4 Patient recently died in a traffic accident. In all patients, transient hepatic dysfunction and hypoproteinemia occurred after the operation. This extensive surgery combined with IPHP using MMC and MIS was well tolerated and is a safe antitumor treatment for gastric cancer with peritoneal dissemination. Neurotoxicity due to MIS was nil.

World Review of Science, Technology and Sustainable Development, 2012

The present study presents a comparative analysis of different group aggregation methods adopted ... more The present study presents a comparative analysis of different group aggregation methods adopted in AHP by testing them against social choice axioms with a case study of Delhi transport system. The group aggregation (GA) methods and their correctness were tested while prioritizing the alternative options to achieve energy efficient and less polluting transport system in Delhi It was observed that among all group aggregation methods, geometric mean method (GMM) -the most widely adopted GA method of AHP -showed poor performance and failed to satisfy the most popular "pareto optimality and non-dictatorship axiom" raising questions on its validity as GA method adopted in AHP. All other group aggregation methods viz. weighted arithmetic mean method with varying weights and equal weights (WAMM, WeAMM)

Cancer, 1985

We prepared biodegradable microspheres containing about 5% mitomycin C (MMC) and of 45 f 8 pm in ... more We prepared biodegradable microspheres containing about 5% mitomycin C (MMC) and of 45 f 8 pm in diameter. These preparations were infused into the rat hepatic artery as a preclinical model of intra-arterial infusion treatment for patients with inoperable hepatic tumor. The leaked MMC levels in the hepatic vein decreased below the assay limitation 2 hours after conventional MMC injection, whereas in the case of MMC microsphere the leaked drug levels were maintained at almost the same concentration for over 2 hours after infusion. The entrapped period of MMC microspheres within the hepatic artery was at least 2 weeks, and the necrobiotic foci due to antitumor effects of the condensed MMC released from the microspheres were observed in the area fed by these entrapped arterioles. This phenomenon was never observed in the case of conventional MMC and placebo microspheres. Intra-arterial infusion of MMC microspheres may be a promising clinical treatment for patients with malignant hepatic tumor.

Transportation Research Part A-policy and Practice, 2003

The present study examines the impact of including various qualitative criteria for the selection... more The present study examines the impact of including various qualitative criteria for the selection of alternative transportation options in Delhi. Three alternative transport options viz. 4-stroke 2-wheelers, CNG cars and CNG buses are prioritized based on six different criteria––energy saving potential (energy), emission reduction potential (environment), cost of operation (cost), availability of technology (technology), adaptability of the option (adaptability) and barriers to implementation (barrier). Based on quantitative criteria ‘energy’, ‘environment’ and ‘cost’, CNG car showed more potential in contributing to environmentally sustainable transport system in Delhi followed by 4-stroke 2-wheelers and CNG buses. Qualitative criteria viz. ‘technology’, ‘adaptability’ and ‘barriers’ in prioritization process resulted in higher priority for 4-stroke 2-wheelers followed by CNG bus and CNG car. Integrated quantitative and qualitative criteria gave a contrasting result as compared to that of the conventional quantitative approach and qualitative approach with highest priority for CNG bus followed by 4-stroke 2-wheelers and CNG car. This could explain the reasons for failure of many potential alternative urban transport options.

Energy Economics, 1996

This paper analyses the evolution of CO2 intensity of the electricity sector in 12 selected Asian... more This paper analyses the evolution of CO2 intensity of the electricity sector in 12 selected Asian countries during the period 1980–1990. The roles of changes in generation mix and fuel intensity in CO2 intensity changes during the period have been examined using Divisia index decomposition approach. A key finding of this study is that power sector CO2 intensities of most Asian countries were mainly influenced by changes in fuel intensities during 1980–1990.

Energy Sources Part A-recovery Utilization and Environmental Effects, 1989

Abstract The densification process is broadly categorized into two dtfferent rypes: hot and high-... more Abstract The densification process is broadly categorized into two dtfferent rypes: hot and high-pressure densification and cold and low-pressure densification. Under these two broad classes dtfferenr aspects of densification, such as machinery for den-sification, ...

Energy, 2002

In this paper, the implications of CO2 emission mitigation constraints in the power sector planni... more In this paper, the implications of CO2 emission mitigation constraints in the power sector planning in Indonesia are examined using a long term integrated resource planning model. An approach is developed to assess the contributions of supply- and demand-side effects to the changes in CO2, SO2 and NOx emissions from the power sector due to constraints on CO2 emissions. The results show that while both supply- and demand-side effects would act towards the reduction of CO2, SO2 and NOx emissions, the supply-side options would play the dominant role in emission mitigations from the power sector in Indonesia. The CO2 abatement cost would increase from US$7.8 to US$9.4 per ton of CO2, while the electricity price would increase by 3.1 to 19.8% if the annual CO2 emission reduction target is raised from 10 to 25%.

Environmental Economics and Policy Studies, 2002

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Mathematical Modelling, 1987

Policies for managing a renewable resource in the presence of a backstop substitute are analysed.... more Policies for managing a renewable resource in the presence of a backstop substitute are analysed. Conditions for renewable and backstop resources to be "relevant" are discussed. The extinction issue, the role of myopic decision rules and the optimality of singular arc policies are reexamined with non-autonomous prices.

Resources and Energy, 1986

Some qualitative comparative static properties of two renewable resource management models (homog... more Some qualitative comparative static properties of two renewable resource management models (homogenous., heterogeoous bromass) are derived. The effects of economic and environmental changes on stocking. maintenance, rotation and continuous harvest policies are considered. A simple synthetic model is developed which examines the long-run role of continuous restocking.

Energy Economics, 1990

This paper examines the role of sectoral shift and improvements in energy intensity of individual... more This paper examines the role of sectoral shift and improvements in energy intensity of individual industries in aggregate manufacturing sector energy intensity changes in Taiwan during 1971–1985. The Divisia index approach is employed to decompose sectoral shift and energy intensity effects. A major finding of this analysis is that changes in energy intensities of individual industries were the main influence in changes in aggregate manufacturing sector fuel and electricity intensities during the period. Sectoral shifts were found to contribute very little to the energy intensity changes.

Paediatrics and Child Health, 2008

The majority of renal tract problems in childhood are congenital in origin with an overall incide... more The majority of renal tract problems in childhood are congenital in origin with an overall incidence of 2e4 per 1000 live births. Some anomalies may occur in isolation e.g. posterior urethral valves; whilst others may be part of a more complex spectrum of anomalies e.g. duplex or horseshoe kidney in VACTERL or VATER association. Prenatal screening has highlighted an increasing number of children with renal tract anomalies which may require paediatric specialist involvement in the immediate postnatal period. Most congenital renal tract problems are managed by paediatric urologists and paediatric surgeons with a special interest in urology.

Climate Policy Assessment, 2003

The Japanese Journal of Surgery, 1987

The antitumor effects of two polyamine antimetabolites, alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) and ... more The antitumor effects of two polyamine antimetabolites, alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) and methylglyoxal-bis-guanylhydrazone (MGBG), when combined with cis-diamminedichlroplatinum (CDDP) or mitomycin C (MMC), were studied using human gastric cancer cells xenotransplanted into nude mice. DFMO 1000 mg/kg and MGBG 50 mg/kg were given intraperitoneally for 6 successive days, while CDDP 3 mg/kg or MMC 2 mg/kg was given every second day. Although DFMO and MGBG plus MMC did suppress the tumor growth, the combination with CDDP led to no suppression, and rapid growth occurred after the cessation of therapy. The inhibition of tumoral DNA biosynthesis and a decline in polyamine levels, were also not observed. The polyamine antimetabolites when used with CDDP did not produce the desired antitumor efficacy, even though the platinum concentration in the tumor tissue was high. On the contrary, however, DFMO and MGBG when combined with MMC did suppress tumor growth, inhibited DNA biosynthesis, and tissue polyamine levels were low. These results suggest that though CDDP and MMC belong to a similar category of DNA attacking, bifunctional alkylating agents, the findings of these two drugs are contradictory. Here, the mechanism of action no doubt plays a contributory role.

Encyclopedia of Earth Science, 1999

International Journal of Cancer, 1985

The antitumor effects of alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), methylglyoxal-bis-guanylhydrazone ... more The antitumor effects of alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), methylglyoxal-bis-guanylhydrazone (MGBG) and mitomycin C (MMC), administered separately or in various combinations, on human stomach cancer cells xenotransplanted into BALB/c nude mice were studied using the protocol of Battelle's Columbus Laboratories (Ovejera et al., 1978). DFMO (1,000 mg/kg in 2 divided doses) and MGBG (50 mg/kg) were given Intraperitoneally (i. p.) for 7 consecutive days from the time when the tumor weighed about 100 mg. MMC (2 mg/kg) was given i. p. every other day from the same time. Animals treated with either DFMO or MGBG alone displayed tumor growth comparable to that seen in untreated controls. In mice treated with DFMO plus MGBG with or without MMC, or in mice treated only with MMC, tumor growth was significantly lower than in untreated mice. In the group which received only combined DFMO/MGBG there was a rapid regrowth of the tumor after termination of therapy. Tumor putrescine levels decreased within 4 days following the administration of DFMO; however, spermidine levels did not decline with either DFMO or MGBG treatment even after 7 days. When combined DFMO/MGBG was given, there was a significant decline in spermidine levels 7 days after the initiation of treatment. In contrast, when MMC alone was administered, putrescine and spermidine levels in the tumor did not differ from those in control mice. Spermine decreased markedly in tumor with the combined administration of DFMO/MGBG as well as with combined DFMO/MGBG/MMC, but decreased only slightly when MMC alone or MMC plus either DFMO or MGBG was administered. By the 7th treatment day, DNA biosynthesis in the tumor had dropped markedly in all groups except those receiving DFMO or MGBG alone.

Cancer, 1985

We prepared biodegradable microspheres containing about 5% mitomycin C (MMC) and of 45 f 8 pm in ... more We prepared biodegradable microspheres containing about 5% mitomycin C (MMC) and of 45 f 8 pm in diameter. These preparations were infused into the rat hepatic artery as a preclinical model of intra-arterial infusion treatment for patients with inoperable hepatic tumor. The leaked MMC levels in the hepatic vein decreased below the assay limitation 2 hours after conventional MMC injection, whereas in the case of MMC microsphere the leaked drug levels were maintained at almost the same concentration for over 2 hours after infusion. The entrapped period of MMC microspheres within the hepatic artery was at least 2 weeks, and the necrobiotic foci due to antitumor effects of the condensed MMC released from the microspheres were observed in the area fed by these entrapped arterioles. This phenomenon was never observed in the case of conventional MMC and placebo microspheres. Intra-arterial infusion of MMC microspheres may be a promising clinical treatment for patients with malignant hepatic tumor.

Annals of Surgery, 1991

Intraoperative pelvic hyperthermochemotherapy (IOPHC) with mitomycin C (MMC) was prescribed for 1... more Intraoperative pelvic hyperthermochemotherapy (IOPHC) with mitomycin C (MMC) was prescribed for 14 patients with re-sectable advanced rectal cancer in an attempt to prevent a post-operative local recurrence. Immediately after rectal amputation and extended lymphadenectomy, ...

Cancer, 1989

Skip to Main Content. ...

Annals of Surgery, 1990

... Hyperthermia is particularly effective for human can-cers, when applied with chemotherapy.&am... more ... Hyperthermia is particularly effective for human can-cers, when applied with chemotherapy." 0 However diffi-culties are encountered when attempting to apply hyper-thermia for lesions of the abdominal cavity with its var-iously shaped organs. Spratt et al.' Koga et al.,' and 595 ...

Annals of Surgery, 1988

Fifteen patients with far-advanced gastric cancer were given surgical treatment followed by intra... more Fifteen patients with far-advanced gastric cancer were given surgical treatment followed by intraperitoneal hyperthermic perfusion (IPHP) with mitomycin C (MMC) and misonidazole (MIS), a thermosensitizing drug. Immediately after extensive resection of the abdominal tumors, a 2-hour IPHP was performed at the inflow temperature of 44.7 to 48.7 C, using equipment designed for treatment of cancerous peritoneal seeding as a closed circuit, and under hypothermic general anesthesia at 30 to 31 C. In nine of the 15 patients with peritoneal seeding and/or ascites, cancerous ascites was absent after this treatment. In all cases, repeated cytologic examinations of the lavage from Douglas's pouch were negative. The postoperative courses were uneventful except for Patients 1 and 10, in whom slight leakage occurred. All patients were discharged and are in good health at the time of this writing, 7.2 +/- 4.6 months after the treatment. The Case 4 Patient recently died in a traffic accident. In all patients, transient hepatic dysfunction and hypoproteinemia occurred after the operation. This extensive surgery combined with IPHP using MMC and MIS was well tolerated and is a safe antitumor treatment for gastric cancer with peritoneal dissemination. Neurotoxicity due to MIS was nil.

World Review of Science, Technology and Sustainable Development, 2012

The present study presents a comparative analysis of different group aggregation methods adopted ... more The present study presents a comparative analysis of different group aggregation methods adopted in AHP by testing them against social choice axioms with a case study of Delhi transport system. The group aggregation (GA) methods and their correctness were tested while prioritizing the alternative options to achieve energy efficient and less polluting transport system in Delhi It was observed that among all group aggregation methods, geometric mean method (GMM) -the most widely adopted GA method of AHP -showed poor performance and failed to satisfy the most popular "pareto optimality and non-dictatorship axiom" raising questions on its validity as GA method adopted in AHP. All other group aggregation methods viz. weighted arithmetic mean method with varying weights and equal weights (WAMM, WeAMM)

Cancer, 1985

We prepared biodegradable microspheres containing about 5% mitomycin C (MMC) and of 45 f 8 pm in ... more We prepared biodegradable microspheres containing about 5% mitomycin C (MMC) and of 45 f 8 pm in diameter. These preparations were infused into the rat hepatic artery as a preclinical model of intra-arterial infusion treatment for patients with inoperable hepatic tumor. The leaked MMC levels in the hepatic vein decreased below the assay limitation 2 hours after conventional MMC injection, whereas in the case of MMC microsphere the leaked drug levels were maintained at almost the same concentration for over 2 hours after infusion. The entrapped period of MMC microspheres within the hepatic artery was at least 2 weeks, and the necrobiotic foci due to antitumor effects of the condensed MMC released from the microspheres were observed in the area fed by these entrapped arterioles. This phenomenon was never observed in the case of conventional MMC and placebo microspheres. Intra-arterial infusion of MMC microspheres may be a promising clinical treatment for patients with malignant hepatic tumor.

Transportation Research Part A-policy and Practice, 2003

The present study examines the impact of including various qualitative criteria for the selection... more The present study examines the impact of including various qualitative criteria for the selection of alternative transportation options in Delhi. Three alternative transport options viz. 4-stroke 2-wheelers, CNG cars and CNG buses are prioritized based on six different criteria––energy saving potential (energy), emission reduction potential (environment), cost of operation (cost), availability of technology (technology), adaptability of the option (adaptability) and barriers to implementation (barrier). Based on quantitative criteria ‘energy’, ‘environment’ and ‘cost’, CNG car showed more potential in contributing to environmentally sustainable transport system in Delhi followed by 4-stroke 2-wheelers and CNG buses. Qualitative criteria viz. ‘technology’, ‘adaptability’ and ‘barriers’ in prioritization process resulted in higher priority for 4-stroke 2-wheelers followed by CNG bus and CNG car. Integrated quantitative and qualitative criteria gave a contrasting result as compared to that of the conventional quantitative approach and qualitative approach with highest priority for CNG bus followed by 4-stroke 2-wheelers and CNG car. This could explain the reasons for failure of many potential alternative urban transport options.

Energy Economics, 1996

This paper analyses the evolution of CO2 intensity of the electricity sector in 12 selected Asian... more This paper analyses the evolution of CO2 intensity of the electricity sector in 12 selected Asian countries during the period 1980–1990. The roles of changes in generation mix and fuel intensity in CO2 intensity changes during the period have been examined using Divisia index decomposition approach. A key finding of this study is that power sector CO2 intensities of most Asian countries were mainly influenced by changes in fuel intensities during 1980–1990.

Energy Sources Part A-recovery Utilization and Environmental Effects, 1989

Abstract The densification process is broadly categorized into two dtfferent rypes: hot and high-... more Abstract The densification process is broadly categorized into two dtfferent rypes: hot and high-pressure densification and cold and low-pressure densification. Under these two broad classes dtfferenr aspects of densification, such as machinery for den-sification, ...

Energy, 2002

In this paper, the implications of CO2 emission mitigation constraints in the power sector planni... more In this paper, the implications of CO2 emission mitigation constraints in the power sector planning in Indonesia are examined using a long term integrated resource planning model. An approach is developed to assess the contributions of supply- and demand-side effects to the changes in CO2, SO2 and NOx emissions from the power sector due to constraints on CO2 emissions. The results show that while both supply- and demand-side effects would act towards the reduction of CO2, SO2 and NOx emissions, the supply-side options would play the dominant role in emission mitigations from the power sector in Indonesia. The CO2 abatement cost would increase from US$7.8 to US$9.4 per ton of CO2, while the electricity price would increase by 3.1 to 19.8% if the annual CO2 emission reduction target is raised from 10 to 25%.