Reidar Persson - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Reidar Persson

During the last few decades, forestry assistance has benefited from the positive interest in envi... more During the last few decades, forestry assistance has benefited from the positive interest in environmental issues and has generally been less questioned than many other sectors of fields within international development assistance. If compared with its own goals and the resources invested, it have achieved rather modest results. The privileged position of forestry assistance may thus soon be challenged, by legitimate demands for increases efficiency in times of decreasing overall volumes of international development aid. Now it is time to embark upon the discussion on how to improve quality and effectiveness, how to spend smarter or even how to do more with less. The purpose of this booklet is to contribute to this much-needed discussion, drawing upon relevant lessons learnt within other fields of international development assistance, analyzing the current situation concerning forestry assistance and finally outlining some suggestions on new paths for the future

The available evidence does not substantiate earlier concerns that woodfuel demand has been outpa... more The available evidence does not substantiate earlier concerns that woodfuel demand has been outpacing sustainable supply on a scale that makes it a major cause of deforestation.

Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) represents a vision for the use of forests based on satisfyin... more Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) represents a vision for the use of forests based on satisfying ecological, economic and social values. In response to unsustainable use of products and services we identify three phases in the ongoing development of SFM. The first is based on sustained yield of wood products where humans dominate nature. Second, there is at present in Europe a phase based on multiple use sustaining primarily wood production, but also with attempts to accommodate new issues such as biodiversity and recreation. Third, a future phase is envisioned with sustainable social-ecological systems inspired by and maintaining authentic natural or cultural processes where humans and nature coexist. The current starting point for trajectories towards the SFM vision, however, varies considerably among countries and regions with different socio-economic settings and ecosystems. Focussing on forest biodiversity, we discuss approaches for making the ecological dimension of the SFM ...

SUMMARY The interest for better information about forest resources is growing at both national an... more SUMMARY The interest for better information about forest resources is growing at both national and international level. Demands for new types of information are now frequently being raised (regarding e.g. biological diversity, non-wood forest products, forest quality). But the conceptual and methodologi-cal basis to satisfy many of these new demands, however, is insufficient. Moreover, answering all new questions will require funds which will not be available in the foreseeable future. Over the last decades great progress in inventory methods/techniques has been made (e.g. in the fields of remote sensing and GIS). Yet, there are serious shortcomings in the forest resource information in both developed and developing countries. Finding of FAO's forest resources assessment 1990 indicate that in developing countries only 14% of the forest area are covered by inventories of high reliability while 43% are covered by inventories of low reliability. In developed countries, which in thi...

Lessons for change: Getting more from international forestry assistance, 2001

During the last few decades, forestry assistance has benefited from the positive interest in envi... more During the last few decades, forestry assistance has benefited from the positive interest in environmental issues and has generally been less questioned than many other sectors of fields within international development assistance. If compared with its own goals and the resources invested, it have achieved rather modest results. The privileged position of forestry assistance may thus soon be challenged, by legitimate demands for increases efficiency in times of decreasing overall volumes of international development aid. Now it is time to embark upon the discussion on how to improve quality and effectiveness, how to spend smarter or even how to do more with less. The purpose of this booklet is to contribute to this much-needed discussion, drawing upon relevant lessons learnt within other fields of international development assistance, analyzing the current situation concerning forestry assistance and finally outlining some suggestions on new paths for the future

Man has been in the "wood age" for most of its existence. Attempts were made early to try to desc... more Man has been in the "wood age" for most of its existence. Attempts were made early to try to describe existing forest resources. Deforestation has also worried man since antiquity. Often there became a shortage of e.g. fuelwood, mining-wood and ship-timber. Plantations started early and attempts with something like sustainable forestry (e.g. coppice) started early. But it was really not until the late 18 th century that the principles of sustained yield forestry (or "scientific forestry") was developed in Germany. At the end of the 19 th century the heavy deforestation in the USA worried many. In 1910 Raphael Zon published the "Forest Resources of the World". I assume Zon's report was partly depending on a fear for a coming shortage of wood in the USA. In 1923 Zon & Sparhawk published "Forest resources of the World". An enormous report of 997 pages. During the coming decades not much happened concerning information about global forest resources. But Thorsten Streyffert´s "Världens Barrskogstillgångar" (Coniferous resources of the World) published in 1931 can be mentioned. And work started at the national level in many countries. The National Forest Inventory in Sweden started e.g. in 1923. At the first session of the FAO Conference in 1945 a recommendation was made that a world forest inventory should be undertaken as soon as possible. 1.1. The start of World Forest Inventories The first so-called "World Forest Inventory" was carried out in 1947/48. The WFI 1948 was based on a questionnaire and is starting with the words, "The whole World is suffering from a shortage of wood." Europe needed to be rebuilt after WWII and it was a fear that there would become a shortage of wood. WFIs were then published for the years 1953, 1958 and 1963. Ideas to see changes in forest area was possibly around but the accuracy in reported figures were not such that this was possible. The definition of forest was changing and was also often very vague (e.g. "capable of producing timber"). Many countries reported more on "forest land" than on "forests". Large areas with open woodlands (savanna forests) were included in "forest". In 1967 it was decided that information should be given on "closed forests" and "open forests". The planned WFI 1968 was very ambitious. Special questionnaires were developed for all regions. The results for industrial countries (OECD) were quite

This is an attempt to summarize what is known about deforestation around 2015. It is based on a r... more This is an attempt to summarize what is known about deforestation around 2015. It is based on a review of literature, but also on my own work since about 1968 with forest inventories, forest statistics, the global forest(ry) situation, assistance to forestry and research about deforestation. Deforestation is nothing new. It has taken place since man started to use fire. During the last 50 years deforestation has been intense in the tropics. Since antiquity at least 30 % of the global forests have been cleared. FAO is collecting most information about the world´s forests. Globally the netdeforestation is now possibly in the order of 3 million ha per year (0.1 % of forest area). In recent time both net-and gross-deforestation are reported to go down. The figures available are in no way exact. Historically population increase and clearing for agriculture were the main reasons for the deforestation. In recent time the causes of deforestation are much more complicated. The driving forces are often reported to be cattle ranching, soy, oil palm, forestry and subsistence agriculture. In summary it is often economic to clear forests and change the land use to e.g. agriculture. Historically deforestation has ceased in Europe and during the last 100 years the forest area has started to increase (the transition). Lately the same has happened also in some "developing countries",

9 Balancing the goals of society and the needs of local people in forest land use- interdisciplin... more 9 Balancing the goals of society and the needs of local people in forest land use- interdisciplinary research in focus Mats Sandewall, Bo Ohlsson and Kajsa Sandewall 14 Agroforestry in transformation

21.5 Services Provided by Forests and Woodlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 21.5.1 Bi... more 21.5 Services Provided by Forests and Woodlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 21.5.1 Biodiversity 21.5.2 Soil and Water Protection 21.5.3 Protection of Fragile Ecosystems: Forests in Mountains, Drylands, and Small Islands 21.5.4 Fiber, Fuel, and Non-wood Forest Products 21.5.5 Carbon Sequestration 21.5.6 Sociocultural Values and Services 21.5.7 Services Provided by Agroforestry Systems 21.5.8 Discussion

Information for forest resources management, conservation and development at national/state level... more Information for forest resources management, conservation and development at national/state level is often insufficient. At the same time existing forest resources information is poorly used. This is particularly but not exclusively ·true of developing countries. There are several reasons for this. Institutions for the formulation and implementation of forest sector policies are weak. Dialogue between producers and users of information is insufficient or absent. Information gathering is seen as a merely technical problem. For the reasons mentioned the mechanism to formulate the questions to be answered in the political process are often absent. The visible result that forest inventory specialists can often observe is that inventory fmdings are simply not used.

World Development, 2006

In the 1970s, it appeared that fuelwood use was growing rapidly, and this could have major advers... more In the 1970s, it appeared that fuelwood use was growing rapidly, and this could have major adverse impacts on the resource and poor users. By the mid-1980s, revised assessments indicated that there was less of a problem than had been foreseen, and much less of a need for forestry interventions to maintain supplies. As a result many of the latter were sharply scaled back. Additional information and analysis that has become available since the 1980s support the view that there is no need for large scale interventions devoted just to provision of fuelwood. However, declining access to supplies or markets can raise significant problems in some areas, and for particular categories of user. Growing urban demand for charcoal can also cause local problems, in particular in Africa. The potentials for appropriate forms of intervention are discussed.

Voluntas, 2010

Non-governmental organizations (NGO) and government donor agencies (GDA) are often caught in a di... more Non-governmental organizations (NGO) and government donor agencies (GDA) are often caught in a dilemma; an NGO between responsiveness to its target group(s), expectations of individual donors and demands of its GDA; GDA between its policy to respect NGO’s integrity, its wish to keep NGOs accountable for received fund and its operation within the bounds of its general policies. This dilemma is mirrored in the NGO–GDA negotiation for funds. Based on negotiation theory and using three explanatory approaches, 18 years of negotiations between an NGO, Vi Skogen (ViS) and its GDA, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida), are analyzed in order to demonstrate how organizational structures, power relations and the context influence the outcome of the negotiations. All three approaches help to explain how ViS managed, mainly in the interest of its individual donors, to resist changes demanded by Sida and also to explain how the agendas of ViS and Sida finally converged. Les organisations non gouvernementales (ONG) et les organismes donateurs gouvernementaux (ODG) sont souvent pris dans un dilemme : pour les ONG, satisfaire à la réactivité pour leur (s) groupe (s) cibles (s), aux attentes des donateurs individuels et aux exigences de l’organisme donateur gouvernemental auxquelles elles sont rattachées; pour les ODG, mettre en œuvre leur politique visant à respecter l’intégrité des ONG, obtenir que les ONG rendent compte des fonds qui leur sont versés, et mener leurs opérations dans les limites de leur politique générale. Ce dilemme se retrouve dans les négociations pour l’attribution des fonds entre ONG et ODG. À partir de la théorie de la négociation et en utilisant trois approches explicatives, nous analysons dix-huit ans de négociation entre Vi Skogen (ViS), une ONG, et Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida, l’agence suédoise de coopération au développement international), l’organisme donateur gouvernemental dont elle dépend, afin de démontrer comment les structures organisationnelles, les rapports de force et le contexte pèsent sur le résultat des négociations. Ces trois approches contribuent à expliquer comment ViS a réussi, principalement dans l’intérêt de ses donateurs individuels, à résister aux changements demandés par Sida, et comment les programmes de ces deux entités ont fini par se rejoindre. Nicht-staatliche Organisationen und staatliche Spendenorganisationen stecken oftmals in einem Dilemma; die nicht-staatlichen Organisationen stehen zwischen ihrer Ansprechbarkeit gegenüber ihren Zielgruppen, den Erwartungen individueller Spender und den Forderungen ihrer staatlichen Spendenorganisationen; die staatlichen Spendenorganisationen stehen zwischen ihrem Grundsatz, die Integrität der nicht-staatlichen Organisationen zu respektieren, ihrem Wunsch, die nicht-staatlichen Organisationen für erhaltene Mittel zur Rechenschaft zu ziehen und ihrer Tätigkeit, welche innerhalb der Schranken ihrer allgemeinen Richtlinien zu erfolgen hat. Dieses Dilemma spiegelt sich in den Verhandlungen über Mittelzuweisungen zwischen den nicht-staatlichen Organisationen und den staatlichen Spendenorganistionen wieder. Begründet auf der Verhandlungstheorie und mittels dreier Erklärungsansätze werden die seit achtzehn Jahren stattfindenden Verhandlungen zwischen einer nicht-staatlichen Organisation, Vi Skogen (ViS,) und ihrer staatlichen Spendenorganisation, der schwedischen Behörde für internationale Entwicklungszusammenarbeit (Sida), untersucht, um darzustellen, welchen Einfluss Organisationsstrukturen, Machtverhältnisse und der Zusammenhang auf das Verhandlungsergebnis haben. Alle drei Ansätze tragen zu der Erklärung bei, wie die ViS es, hauptsächlich im Interesse ihrer individuellen Spendengeber, schaffte, sich den von der Sida geforderten Änderungen zu widersetzen und wie sich die Ziele der ViS und der Sida letztendlich näher kamen. A menudo, las organizaciones no gubernamentales (ONG) y las instituciones donantes gubernamentales (GDA) se enfrentan a un dilema: las ONG deben decidir contentar a sus grupos meta, las expectativas de los donantes individuales y plegarse a las exigencias de su GDA; las GDA entre su política de respetar la integridad de las ONG, su deseo de hacer a las ONG responsables de los fondos recibidos y su funcionamiento dentro de los límites de sus políticas generales. Este dilema se refleja en la negociación entre las ONG y las GDA a propósito de los fondos. A la luz de la teoría de la negociación y utilizando tres enfoques explicativos, se analizan dieciocho años de negociaciones entre la ONG Vi Skogen (ViS) y su GDA, la Agencia Sueca de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo (ASDI), con el fin de demostrar cómo las estructuras organizativas, las relaciones de poder y el contexto influyen en el resultado de las negociaciones. Los tres enfoques ayudan a explicar cómo ViS consiguió resistir, sobre todo en interés de sus donantes individuales, los cambios exigidos por la ASDI y también cómo convergieron finalmente los programas de la ViS y la ASDI. 非政府组织(英语缩写 NGO)和政府捐助机构 (英语缩写 GDA)往往处于进退两难之中:非政府组织夹在对其目标群体的反应、个别捐赠者的期望及其政府捐助机构的要求等之中;政府捐助机构则夹在其对非政府组织完整性的尊重、其在保持非政府组织对接受资金负责方面和这些组织经营操作限于该机构一般政策范围内方面的愿望等之间。 这一进退两难反映于非政府组织与政府捐助机构在资金方面的谈判之中。基于谈判理论和使用三种解释性方法,对一个名为 Vi Skogen (ViS) 的非政府组织及其政府捐助机构”瑞典国际发展合作署”(Sida) 之间在十八年中的谈判进行了分析,以演示组织结构、权利关系及其背景对谈判结果的影响。所有三种方法帮助解释了 ViS 在主要是保护其个别捐赠者的利益情况下如何得以成功地拒绝了 Sida 所要求的变化,同时也解释了双方的议程如何终于趋於一致。 非営利団体(NGO)と政府ドナー機関(GDA)は、目標グループへの反応におけるNGOの相互間、 個々のドナーの期待、NGO保全を尊重する方針におけるGDAへの要望、受け取った基金に責任を持つNGOへの期待、一般的な方針の結合における運営において、よくジレンマに陥る。このジレンマはNGOとGDAの基金交渉で明らかになる。交渉理論に基づき、3つの説明可能なアプローチを用いることで、NGO、Vi Skogen(ViS)、GDAであるスウェーデンの国際開発協力庁(Sida)における18年間にわたる交渉を通して、組織体制、力関係、状況が、どのように交渉の結果に対して影響を及ぼすかを分析する。これらすべての3つのアプローチでは、主として個々のドナーの利益においては、Sidaによる要求された変更に対する抵抗に対してViSがどのように管理されるか、さらにViSとSidaに関する基本方針がどのように最終的に集約されるかの説明するのに役立つ。 المنظمات الغير حكومية(NGO) ووكالات الحكومة المانحة(GDA) غالباً ما تكون واقعة في مأزق ؛ المنظمات الغير حكومية (NGO) بين الإستجابة لمجموعاتها المستهدفة، توقعات الجهات المانحة الفردية و طليات وكالات حكومتها المانحة(GDA) ؛ كذلك وكالات الحكومة المانحة (GDA) بين سياستها على إحترام نزاهة المنظمات الغير حكومية(NGO) ، و رغبتها في إبقاء المنظمات الغير حكومية (NGO) للمساءلة عن الموارد المالية التي تم إستلامها و التشغيل في حدود سياساتها العامة. هذه المعضلة منعكسة في تفاوض المنظمات الغير حكومية(NGO – وكالات الحكومة المانحة (GDA) للحصول على الأموال.على أساس نظرية التفاوض واستخدام ثلاثة طرق تفسيرية، وثمانية عشر عاماً مفاوضات بين منظمة غير حكومية (NGO)، المنظمة السويدية (Vi Skogen (ViS)) ووكالة حكومتها المانحة ((GDA، ووكالة التنمية الدولية السويدية التعاونية (سيدا ((Sida)، يتم تحليهم من أجل إظهار كيف أن الهياكل التنظيمية ، وعلاقات القوة والنفوذ تؤثر في نتائج المفاوضات. الثلاث طرق تساعد على شرح كيف نجحت المنظمة السويدية (ViS) ، أساساً في الإهتمام بجهاتها المانحة الفردية ، مقاومة التغييرات التي تطالب بها سيدا ((Sida وأيضا شرح كيف أن جداول أعمال المنظمة السويدية(ViS) وسيدا ((Sida أخيرًا تقاربوا.

During the last few decades, forestry assistance has benefited from the positive interest in envi... more During the last few decades, forestry assistance has benefited from the positive interest in environmental issues and has generally been less questioned than many other sectors of fields within international development assistance. If compared with its own goals and the resources invested, it have achieved rather modest results. The privileged position of forestry assistance may thus soon be challenged, by legitimate demands for increases efficiency in times of decreasing overall volumes of international development aid. Now it is time to embark upon the discussion on how to improve quality and effectiveness, how to spend smarter or even how to do more with less. The purpose of this booklet is to contribute to this much-needed discussion, drawing upon relevant lessons learnt within other fields of international development assistance, analyzing the current situation concerning forestry assistance and finally outlining some suggestions on new paths for the future

The available evidence does not substantiate earlier concerns that woodfuel demand has been outpa... more The available evidence does not substantiate earlier concerns that woodfuel demand has been outpacing sustainable supply on a scale that makes it a major cause of deforestation.

Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) represents a vision for the use of forests based on satisfyin... more Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) represents a vision for the use of forests based on satisfying ecological, economic and social values. In response to unsustainable use of products and services we identify three phases in the ongoing development of SFM. The first is based on sustained yield of wood products where humans dominate nature. Second, there is at present in Europe a phase based on multiple use sustaining primarily wood production, but also with attempts to accommodate new issues such as biodiversity and recreation. Third, a future phase is envisioned with sustainable social-ecological systems inspired by and maintaining authentic natural or cultural processes where humans and nature coexist. The current starting point for trajectories towards the SFM vision, however, varies considerably among countries and regions with different socio-economic settings and ecosystems. Focussing on forest biodiversity, we discuss approaches for making the ecological dimension of the SFM ...

SUMMARY The interest for better information about forest resources is growing at both national an... more SUMMARY The interest for better information about forest resources is growing at both national and international level. Demands for new types of information are now frequently being raised (regarding e.g. biological diversity, non-wood forest products, forest quality). But the conceptual and methodologi-cal basis to satisfy many of these new demands, however, is insufficient. Moreover, answering all new questions will require funds which will not be available in the foreseeable future. Over the last decades great progress in inventory methods/techniques has been made (e.g. in the fields of remote sensing and GIS). Yet, there are serious shortcomings in the forest resource information in both developed and developing countries. Finding of FAO's forest resources assessment 1990 indicate that in developing countries only 14% of the forest area are covered by inventories of high reliability while 43% are covered by inventories of low reliability. In developed countries, which in thi...

Lessons for change: Getting more from international forestry assistance, 2001

During the last few decades, forestry assistance has benefited from the positive interest in envi... more During the last few decades, forestry assistance has benefited from the positive interest in environmental issues and has generally been less questioned than many other sectors of fields within international development assistance. If compared with its own goals and the resources invested, it have achieved rather modest results. The privileged position of forestry assistance may thus soon be challenged, by legitimate demands for increases efficiency in times of decreasing overall volumes of international development aid. Now it is time to embark upon the discussion on how to improve quality and effectiveness, how to spend smarter or even how to do more with less. The purpose of this booklet is to contribute to this much-needed discussion, drawing upon relevant lessons learnt within other fields of international development assistance, analyzing the current situation concerning forestry assistance and finally outlining some suggestions on new paths for the future

Man has been in the "wood age" for most of its existence. Attempts were made early to try to desc... more Man has been in the "wood age" for most of its existence. Attempts were made early to try to describe existing forest resources. Deforestation has also worried man since antiquity. Often there became a shortage of e.g. fuelwood, mining-wood and ship-timber. Plantations started early and attempts with something like sustainable forestry (e.g. coppice) started early. But it was really not until the late 18 th century that the principles of sustained yield forestry (or "scientific forestry") was developed in Germany. At the end of the 19 th century the heavy deforestation in the USA worried many. In 1910 Raphael Zon published the "Forest Resources of the World". I assume Zon's report was partly depending on a fear for a coming shortage of wood in the USA. In 1923 Zon & Sparhawk published "Forest resources of the World". An enormous report of 997 pages. During the coming decades not much happened concerning information about global forest resources. But Thorsten Streyffert´s "Världens Barrskogstillgångar" (Coniferous resources of the World) published in 1931 can be mentioned. And work started at the national level in many countries. The National Forest Inventory in Sweden started e.g. in 1923. At the first session of the FAO Conference in 1945 a recommendation was made that a world forest inventory should be undertaken as soon as possible. 1.1. The start of World Forest Inventories The first so-called "World Forest Inventory" was carried out in 1947/48. The WFI 1948 was based on a questionnaire and is starting with the words, "The whole World is suffering from a shortage of wood." Europe needed to be rebuilt after WWII and it was a fear that there would become a shortage of wood. WFIs were then published for the years 1953, 1958 and 1963. Ideas to see changes in forest area was possibly around but the accuracy in reported figures were not such that this was possible. The definition of forest was changing and was also often very vague (e.g. "capable of producing timber"). Many countries reported more on "forest land" than on "forests". Large areas with open woodlands (savanna forests) were included in "forest". In 1967 it was decided that information should be given on "closed forests" and "open forests". The planned WFI 1968 was very ambitious. Special questionnaires were developed for all regions. The results for industrial countries (OECD) were quite

This is an attempt to summarize what is known about deforestation around 2015. It is based on a r... more This is an attempt to summarize what is known about deforestation around 2015. It is based on a review of literature, but also on my own work since about 1968 with forest inventories, forest statistics, the global forest(ry) situation, assistance to forestry and research about deforestation. Deforestation is nothing new. It has taken place since man started to use fire. During the last 50 years deforestation has been intense in the tropics. Since antiquity at least 30 % of the global forests have been cleared. FAO is collecting most information about the world´s forests. Globally the netdeforestation is now possibly in the order of 3 million ha per year (0.1 % of forest area). In recent time both net-and gross-deforestation are reported to go down. The figures available are in no way exact. Historically population increase and clearing for agriculture were the main reasons for the deforestation. In recent time the causes of deforestation are much more complicated. The driving forces are often reported to be cattle ranching, soy, oil palm, forestry and subsistence agriculture. In summary it is often economic to clear forests and change the land use to e.g. agriculture. Historically deforestation has ceased in Europe and during the last 100 years the forest area has started to increase (the transition). Lately the same has happened also in some "developing countries",

9 Balancing the goals of society and the needs of local people in forest land use- interdisciplin... more 9 Balancing the goals of society and the needs of local people in forest land use- interdisciplinary research in focus Mats Sandewall, Bo Ohlsson and Kajsa Sandewall 14 Agroforestry in transformation

21.5 Services Provided by Forests and Woodlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 21.5.1 Bi... more 21.5 Services Provided by Forests and Woodlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 21.5.1 Biodiversity 21.5.2 Soil and Water Protection 21.5.3 Protection of Fragile Ecosystems: Forests in Mountains, Drylands, and Small Islands 21.5.4 Fiber, Fuel, and Non-wood Forest Products 21.5.5 Carbon Sequestration 21.5.6 Sociocultural Values and Services 21.5.7 Services Provided by Agroforestry Systems 21.5.8 Discussion

Information for forest resources management, conservation and development at national/state level... more Information for forest resources management, conservation and development at national/state level is often insufficient. At the same time existing forest resources information is poorly used. This is particularly but not exclusively ·true of developing countries. There are several reasons for this. Institutions for the formulation and implementation of forest sector policies are weak. Dialogue between producers and users of information is insufficient or absent. Information gathering is seen as a merely technical problem. For the reasons mentioned the mechanism to formulate the questions to be answered in the political process are often absent. The visible result that forest inventory specialists can often observe is that inventory fmdings are simply not used.

World Development, 2006

In the 1970s, it appeared that fuelwood use was growing rapidly, and this could have major advers... more In the 1970s, it appeared that fuelwood use was growing rapidly, and this could have major adverse impacts on the resource and poor users. By the mid-1980s, revised assessments indicated that there was less of a problem than had been foreseen, and much less of a need for forestry interventions to maintain supplies. As a result many of the latter were sharply scaled back. Additional information and analysis that has become available since the 1980s support the view that there is no need for large scale interventions devoted just to provision of fuelwood. However, declining access to supplies or markets can raise significant problems in some areas, and for particular categories of user. Growing urban demand for charcoal can also cause local problems, in particular in Africa. The potentials for appropriate forms of intervention are discussed.

Voluntas, 2010

Non-governmental organizations (NGO) and government donor agencies (GDA) are often caught in a di... more Non-governmental organizations (NGO) and government donor agencies (GDA) are often caught in a dilemma; an NGO between responsiveness to its target group(s), expectations of individual donors and demands of its GDA; GDA between its policy to respect NGO’s integrity, its wish to keep NGOs accountable for received fund and its operation within the bounds of its general policies. This dilemma is mirrored in the NGO–GDA negotiation for funds. Based on negotiation theory and using three explanatory approaches, 18 years of negotiations between an NGO, Vi Skogen (ViS) and its GDA, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida), are analyzed in order to demonstrate how organizational structures, power relations and the context influence the outcome of the negotiations. All three approaches help to explain how ViS managed, mainly in the interest of its individual donors, to resist changes demanded by Sida and also to explain how the agendas of ViS and Sida finally converged. Les organisations non gouvernementales (ONG) et les organismes donateurs gouvernementaux (ODG) sont souvent pris dans un dilemme : pour les ONG, satisfaire à la réactivité pour leur (s) groupe (s) cibles (s), aux attentes des donateurs individuels et aux exigences de l’organisme donateur gouvernemental auxquelles elles sont rattachées; pour les ODG, mettre en œuvre leur politique visant à respecter l’intégrité des ONG, obtenir que les ONG rendent compte des fonds qui leur sont versés, et mener leurs opérations dans les limites de leur politique générale. Ce dilemme se retrouve dans les négociations pour l’attribution des fonds entre ONG et ODG. À partir de la théorie de la négociation et en utilisant trois approches explicatives, nous analysons dix-huit ans de négociation entre Vi Skogen (ViS), une ONG, et Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida, l’agence suédoise de coopération au développement international), l’organisme donateur gouvernemental dont elle dépend, afin de démontrer comment les structures organisationnelles, les rapports de force et le contexte pèsent sur le résultat des négociations. Ces trois approches contribuent à expliquer comment ViS a réussi, principalement dans l’intérêt de ses donateurs individuels, à résister aux changements demandés par Sida, et comment les programmes de ces deux entités ont fini par se rejoindre. Nicht-staatliche Organisationen und staatliche Spendenorganisationen stecken oftmals in einem Dilemma; die nicht-staatlichen Organisationen stehen zwischen ihrer Ansprechbarkeit gegenüber ihren Zielgruppen, den Erwartungen individueller Spender und den Forderungen ihrer staatlichen Spendenorganisationen; die staatlichen Spendenorganisationen stehen zwischen ihrem Grundsatz, die Integrität der nicht-staatlichen Organisationen zu respektieren, ihrem Wunsch, die nicht-staatlichen Organisationen für erhaltene Mittel zur Rechenschaft zu ziehen und ihrer Tätigkeit, welche innerhalb der Schranken ihrer allgemeinen Richtlinien zu erfolgen hat. Dieses Dilemma spiegelt sich in den Verhandlungen über Mittelzuweisungen zwischen den nicht-staatlichen Organisationen und den staatlichen Spendenorganistionen wieder. Begründet auf der Verhandlungstheorie und mittels dreier Erklärungsansätze werden die seit achtzehn Jahren stattfindenden Verhandlungen zwischen einer nicht-staatlichen Organisation, Vi Skogen (ViS,) und ihrer staatlichen Spendenorganisation, der schwedischen Behörde für internationale Entwicklungszusammenarbeit (Sida), untersucht, um darzustellen, welchen Einfluss Organisationsstrukturen, Machtverhältnisse und der Zusammenhang auf das Verhandlungsergebnis haben. Alle drei Ansätze tragen zu der Erklärung bei, wie die ViS es, hauptsächlich im Interesse ihrer individuellen Spendengeber, schaffte, sich den von der Sida geforderten Änderungen zu widersetzen und wie sich die Ziele der ViS und der Sida letztendlich näher kamen. A menudo, las organizaciones no gubernamentales (ONG) y las instituciones donantes gubernamentales (GDA) se enfrentan a un dilema: las ONG deben decidir contentar a sus grupos meta, las expectativas de los donantes individuales y plegarse a las exigencias de su GDA; las GDA entre su política de respetar la integridad de las ONG, su deseo de hacer a las ONG responsables de los fondos recibidos y su funcionamiento dentro de los límites de sus políticas generales. Este dilema se refleja en la negociación entre las ONG y las GDA a propósito de los fondos. A la luz de la teoría de la negociación y utilizando tres enfoques explicativos, se analizan dieciocho años de negociaciones entre la ONG Vi Skogen (ViS) y su GDA, la Agencia Sueca de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo (ASDI), con el fin de demostrar cómo las estructuras organizativas, las relaciones de poder y el contexto influyen en el resultado de las negociaciones. Los tres enfoques ayudan a explicar cómo ViS consiguió resistir, sobre todo en interés de sus donantes individuales, los cambios exigidos por la ASDI y también cómo convergieron finalmente los programas de la ViS y la ASDI. 非政府组织(英语缩写 NGO)和政府捐助机构 (英语缩写 GDA)往往处于进退两难之中:非政府组织夹在对其目标群体的反应、个别捐赠者的期望及其政府捐助机构的要求等之中;政府捐助机构则夹在其对非政府组织完整性的尊重、其在保持非政府组织对接受资金负责方面和这些组织经营操作限于该机构一般政策范围内方面的愿望等之间。 这一进退两难反映于非政府组织与政府捐助机构在资金方面的谈判之中。基于谈判理论和使用三种解释性方法,对一个名为 Vi Skogen (ViS) 的非政府组织及其政府捐助机构”瑞典国际发展合作署”(Sida) 之间在十八年中的谈判进行了分析,以演示组织结构、权利关系及其背景对谈判结果的影响。所有三种方法帮助解释了 ViS 在主要是保护其个别捐赠者的利益情况下如何得以成功地拒绝了 Sida 所要求的变化,同时也解释了双方的议程如何终于趋於一致。 非営利団体(NGO)と政府ドナー機関(GDA)は、目標グループへの反応におけるNGOの相互間、 個々のドナーの期待、NGO保全を尊重する方針におけるGDAへの要望、受け取った基金に責任を持つNGOへの期待、一般的な方針の結合における運営において、よくジレンマに陥る。このジレンマはNGOとGDAの基金交渉で明らかになる。交渉理論に基づき、3つの説明可能なアプローチを用いることで、NGO、Vi Skogen(ViS)、GDAであるスウェーデンの国際開発協力庁(Sida)における18年間にわたる交渉を通して、組織体制、力関係、状況が、どのように交渉の結果に対して影響を及ぼすかを分析する。これらすべての3つのアプローチでは、主として個々のドナーの利益においては、Sidaによる要求された変更に対する抵抗に対してViSがどのように管理されるか、さらにViSとSidaに関する基本方針がどのように最終的に集約されるかの説明するのに役立つ。 المنظمات الغير حكومية(NGO) ووكالات الحكومة المانحة(GDA) غالباً ما تكون واقعة في مأزق ؛ المنظمات الغير حكومية (NGO) بين الإستجابة لمجموعاتها المستهدفة، توقعات الجهات المانحة الفردية و طليات وكالات حكومتها المانحة(GDA) ؛ كذلك وكالات الحكومة المانحة (GDA) بين سياستها على إحترام نزاهة المنظمات الغير حكومية(NGO) ، و رغبتها في إبقاء المنظمات الغير حكومية (NGO) للمساءلة عن الموارد المالية التي تم إستلامها و التشغيل في حدود سياساتها العامة. هذه المعضلة منعكسة في تفاوض المنظمات الغير حكومية(NGO – وكالات الحكومة المانحة (GDA) للحصول على الأموال.على أساس نظرية التفاوض واستخدام ثلاثة طرق تفسيرية، وثمانية عشر عاماً مفاوضات بين منظمة غير حكومية (NGO)، المنظمة السويدية (Vi Skogen (ViS)) ووكالة حكومتها المانحة ((GDA، ووكالة التنمية الدولية السويدية التعاونية (سيدا ((Sida)، يتم تحليهم من أجل إظهار كيف أن الهياكل التنظيمية ، وعلاقات القوة والنفوذ تؤثر في نتائج المفاوضات. الثلاث طرق تساعد على شرح كيف نجحت المنظمة السويدية (ViS) ، أساساً في الإهتمام بجهاتها المانحة الفردية ، مقاومة التغييرات التي تطالب بها سيدا ((Sida وأيضا شرح كيف أن جداول أعمال المنظمة السويدية(ViS) وسيدا ((Sida أخيرًا تقاربوا.