Roger Lorton - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Roger Lorton

Falklands Wars – the History of the Falkland Islands: with particular regard to Spanish and Argentine pretensions and taking some account of South Georgia, the South Sandwich Islands and Britain's Antarctic Territories , 2024

Twelve years after the last United Nations General Assembly resolution in 1988, Argentina could n... more Twelve years after the last United Nations General Assembly resolution in 1988, Argentina could not admit that the debate over the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands had, in effect, been settled. No Argentine government could admit that it had, not without a serious risk of, at the least, public protest and possible violent disorder. President Menem had withdrawn the question from the General Assembly, leaving only the UN's annual Decolonization Committee meetings as an international forum where Argentina's claims could still be aired. Or was it? Perhaps other opportunities could be found among the myriad of international groups and clubs that nations' join to further their political/geopolitical interests. Argentine government had to be seen to be doing something. This chapter details the actions, in particular, of the 12 years of Kirchner presidential administrations and the noise those produced in forums around the world.

In 1810, Buenos Aires had rejected the authority of the Spanish government and ejected the Vicero... more In 1810, Buenos Aires had rejected the authority of the Spanish government and ejected the Viceroy, forming its own government albeit, confusingly, in the name of King Ferdinand – then a prisoner of Napoleon. With Spain's power in the Americas weakening, this chapter considers the separation of the Rio de la Plata provinces from the Spanish Empire and the first tentative steps towards independence. Buenos Aires was the seat of power in the area, controlling access to the inner provinces via the silver river; a position that created both jealousies and rivalry. Those early years were always destined to be turbulent, and they were.
As regards the Falkland Islands, this chapter considers in particular, privateer David Jewett's obscure 1820 claim, supposedly on behalf of the United Provinces of South America, and Luis Vernet's attempts to turn East Falkland (Soledad) Island into a profitable cattle ranch. It was this Island that would attract the interest of Buenos Aires, where the claims of Spain had not been forgotten.

With the Antarctic question safely tucked away, Britain could breath a little easier. Threats to ... more With the Antarctic question safely tucked away, Britain could breath a little easier. Threats to its Antarctic and sub-Antarctic territories removed. Outside the Antarctic Treaty area, however, were the Falkland Islands, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands and to these Argentina would now turn its full attention. At the young United Nations, Buenos Aires saw an opportunity. Enlarged, as it was becoming, with newly independent States, the UN was anti-imperialistic and keen to pressure the United Kingdom into abandoning the last colonies of its Empire. Whether they wished to be abandoned, or not. This paper considers the call for negotiation from Argentina and that country's manipulation of the decolonization process as envisaged by the United Nations and its Special Committee on Decolonization. Also the developing recognition of a right of self-determination for those colonies listed by the organization. Decolonization and self-determination or, perhaps, decolonization versus self-determination.

While the Falkland Islands were generally now accepted as British territory – even by Argentina –... more While the Falkland Islands were generally now accepted as British territory – even by Argentina – that did not prevent others considering that they held rights. In particular, the sealers of the United States still saw the Falklands as an unregulated resource; an area that they had been fishing for more than seventy years and intended to continue doing so. Previous attempts to curtail their activities by Spain and Buenos Aires had failed. Spectacularly, in the latter case (see December, 1831). However, to demonstrate effective control, Britain needed to do better, but diplomatically, so sealing regulations would be slow to appear, and slower to be enforced. Washington itself had doubts about the legal nature of its South Atlantic fishery; but bull & bluster would suffice for a while and the US Navy was never short of a good measure of gung-ho. This paper focuses on the consolidation of Britain's administration of the archipelago; the break-up of the Argentine Confederation and the subsequent colonization of Patagonia. Buenos Aires would remember the archipelago, eventually

While the job of picking up the pieces began, the future remained uncertain, with Argentina refus... more While the job of picking up the pieces began, the future remained uncertain, with Argentina refusing to acknowledge an end to hostilities. Repatriation of the large number of POWs was the first problem. Then the question of reconstruction, both long-term and short-term, needed addressing. Whatever was going to happen, Island life could never be quite the same again.

Three claimants reduced to two. Spain was about to take over at Port Louis in the belief that wha... more Three claimants reduced to two. Spain was about to take over at Port Louis in the belief that whatever the archipelago consisted of, it was theirs. But then they also knew that the British were somewhere near. Two old enemies in close proximity. It was inevitable that when the two met, despite there being an unusual peace between them, there would be a reaction. This paper considers the events that caused Britain, Spain, and France to rearm for war; and the uneasy compromise that would avert a fight. A compromise that would become the status quo for the next forty years. Britain in the west, Spain in the east.

This paper considers the first 300 years of the history of the Falkland Islands; discovery and th... more This paper considers the first 300 years of the history of the Falkland Islands; discovery and the period immediately before the first settlement. Discovery? By who? Vespucci, Magellan, Gomes, de Loaisa, de Acuña, Davis, Hawkins or de Weerdt? All have been suggested. Portuguese, Spanish, English or Dutch? Others perhaps? Explorers long forgotten, with no shortage of wild theories. One, for example, purports that the Chinese discovered South America at the beginning of the 15th century. Another, that a Turkish chart of 1513 reveals the Antarctic land mass as it was, before covered by miles of ice. Wild theories, little evidence. But does it matter? Discovery is one thing. Ownership quite another. However, before our Eurocentric perspective regarding sovereignty can leave the starting blocks, somebody had to discover America.

In 1494, Spain and Portugal sat down and divided the New World between them, from pole to pole. N... more In 1494, Spain and Portugal sat down and divided the New World between them, from pole to pole. None of their European neighbours paid very much attention, and two hundred later Spain was still attempting to maintain sole jurisdiction of much of the Americas. Much of North America, all of South America outside of those areas held by Portugal. In 1713, following the end of the War of Spanish Succession, a number of treaties had been signed between the belligerents, all generally known as the Treaty of Utrecht. Those between Britain and Spain involved compromises. Spain obtained recognition of its American possessions before 1700; Britain gained Gibraltar and Minorca. As with all treaties, the devil lay in the detail. Spain believed that it had gained the sole rights not just to territory, but the seas that surrounded those territories. None of their European neighbours paid very much attention. This Chapter deals with the early tussles over Spain's claimed right to exclusive control of the seas around South America. A claim viewed jealously by both friend and enemy.

This paper examines what were known, for a period, as the Falkland Islands Dependencies. In parti... more This paper examines what were known, for a period, as the Falkland Islands Dependencies. In particular, South Georgia – claimed for Britain in 1775. For convenience, British territories in the South Atlantic, sub-Antarctic and the UK's claims to Antarctica were administered from the Falklands; despite each territory having very separate histories. Also considered is the diplomatic manoeuvring that led to the signing of the 1959 Antarctic Treaty. An important period also, due to the founding of the United Nations and its International Court of Justice. Successors to the League of Nations with its World Court. A period when it was thought that arbitration could peacefully resolve outstanding sovereignty issues; if only nations would submit themselves to it. A period encompassing two World Wars.

In 1965 the United Nations had called upon the UK and Argentina to commence negotiations with a v... more In 1965 the United Nations had called upon the UK and Argentina to commence negotiations with a view to resolve the main issue that lay between them – sovereignty over the Falkland Islands. Talks had started in 1966, but had been slow to produce anything tangible. Concentrating on the future of the archipelago; with historic rights not discussed, as neither side was going to budge from their entrenched positions. But the fundamental problem of the future was grounded in the recognition, by both the United Nations and the UK, that the Islanders' had rights which had to be respected. Argentina, however, rejected any recognition of the Islanders that would have given the people of the archipelago a veto. For Argentina, there were only two parties to the dispute, not three. Seeing itself in a no-win situation, the British government could only seek to persuade the Islanders that life with Argentina could bring improvements to living standards and offer a more prosperous future. An Anglo-Argentine agreement of 1971 was intended to start a process of persuasion; offering unrestricted contact with the mainland, access to hospitals and education facilities. Also the modernization of infrastructure within the islands; telephones, gas and televisions. This paper considers both this process together with the progress of negotiations; and the inherent frustrations that would lead to conflict.

England had withdrawn its garrison from the western Falklands, but not abandoned its sovereignty.... more England had withdrawn its garrison from the western Falklands, but not abandoned its sovereignty. The traders had moved into Jasons Town, while their ships hunted the islands for whales and seals. Spain had been expected to follow the British and remove its garrison; but Spain was reluctant to do so. Madrid knew that Britain would be back, and that the only question was when? Also, Spain had promised France that an armed watch would be maintained over the islands to prevent the British taking full control. If Spain withdrew, Paris would argue that the French should return. So Spain did not comply with the mutual abandonment agreement that Britain thought existed; merely reducing the status of Soledad to a presidio (frontier fort). Spain had other problems as the archipelago was not the only area of the Americas where its claims were under threat. Its authority over large tracts of American territory were being challenged. In 1789 and 1790, Spain and Britain would face-off once again. This paper deals with these events; also considering the rise of Republican France; Napoleon and the final end to the seemingly interminable Anglo-Spanish Wars.

United Nations sponsored talks had not proven fruitful for Argentina. Unwilling to take a case to... more United Nations sponsored talks had not proven fruitful for Argentina. Unwilling to take a case to the International Court of Justice, Argentina chose the only other route left open to it – invasion. Trial by combat. By taking such drastic action the military junta in Buenos Aires hoped to present Britain with a fait accompli; a situation that could not be overturned. Their expectation was that Britain would see the futility of its position and recognise that any attempt to restore islands 8,000 miles away was tactically doomed to failure. After 150 years of dealing with the British, Argentina had clearly learned very little. Worth remembering, perhaps, that at dawn on April 2nd, 1767, Spain first raised its flag over East Falkland. With a fondness for anniversaries, it seems unlikely that Argentina, Spain's supposed heir, invaded on the 2nd by coincidence; or due to the weather.

Guerra de las Islas Falkland: de 1700 a 1850, 2020

Una historia concisa de las Islas Malvinas desde 1700 hasta 1850 centrada en las disputas entre F... more Una historia concisa de las Islas Malvinas desde 1700 hasta 1850 centrada en las disputas entre Francia, Gran Bretaña, España y Argentina por el archipiélago de las Islas Malvinas.

A concise history of the Falkland Islands from 1700 to 1850 focusing upon the disputes between France, Great Britain, Spain and Argentina over the Falkland Islands archipelago.

The end is nigh. For this research at least. 2020 saw the 500th anniversary of Magellan’s discove... more The end is nigh. For this research at least. 2020 saw the 500th anniversary of Magellan’s discovery of his strait in 1520, where this timeline history started. Yes, I actually started in 1480, but that was only to provide the
background necessary for Magellan’s expedition in search of a way through to the Spice Islands. 2020 also marks, roughly, the decade that the research has taken. Ten years is enough and if I do not stop now, I may
never stop. Why? Because the situation vis-a-vis Argentina and the Falkland Islands has become rote. The same tedious pantomime every year. Always starting with a press release on January 3rd. Always ending with an end of year message from the British Prime Minister. A Sisyphean motion. The same rock being rolled up the same hill – year after year. Repetition, repetition, repetition. I will leave it to others to track the cycle over the next ten years. Or 500.

Sovereignty reasserted, the British Navy did not remain. After Onslow's departure, the islands re... more Sovereignty reasserted, the British Navy did not remain. After Onslow's departure, the islands remained without any direct authority other than an Irish Storekeeper tasked to raise the flag on a Sunday. The archipelago was confirmed as a Crown possession, but not a colony. This paper deals with the aftermath of the murderous riot of August, 1833 and the decision making process that led to formal colonization and consolidation.
At the start of 1834, Port Louis was deserted with some of the survivors living on Hog Island in Berkeley Sound, while others had been taken Port Egmont, on the far side of the archipelago. The good news was that help was on its way; though intimation of the murders had yet to reach those who could react. Those responsible for the deaths, however, were still nearby; watching. Desperate to find a way off the Islands, food had been offered to the Hog Island group, with reassurances - lowering their defences.

Britain's first diplomatic shot had been fired. A protest across the bows. A protest acknowledged... more Britain's first diplomatic shot had been fired. A protest across the bows. A protest acknowledged but not acted upon - nor answered. A protest ignored. As had been the case since 1820, there was, sufficient confusion in the political situation in Buenos Aires for events on the islands to quickly fade into the background. Luis Vernet, ignorant of the protest, needed to assert his new-found authority. He chose American sealers as his target. This paper considers that action and the consequences that flowed from it. The US reaction was as radical as it was unexpected. It left Britain with little choice but to move in, with results that linger still.

This publication is written in an easy-to-use dictionary format and provides a concise reference ... more This publication is written in an easy-to-use dictionary format and provides a concise reference guide to the vast range of criminal offences in England and Wales. It covers the powers of arrest, search and seizure available to police officers in dealing with offenders. This fully updated edition contains information on over 800 offences from over 200 Acts, Orders and Regulations. Entries are listed under keyword subject headings and a standard format is given for each: details of relevant offences and the Acts contravened, the maximum sentence applicable; the relevant police powers available; and definitions, notes and references. The book is written for use by operational police officers, special constables and those with an interest in policing law.

Falklands Wars: 1700 to 1850 A concise narrative history, 2020

After ten years of research and nearly one million words, it was time to reduce the findings into... more After ten years of research and nearly one million words, it was time to reduce the findings into something more manageable. This work covers the first 150 years of Falklands history, within which can be discovered the foundations of an Anglo-Argentine dispute that has rumbled on into the 21st century. Marx wrote that: "History repeats itself, first as tragedy, second as farce." When it come to the history of the Falkland Islands, Marx may have had it the wrong way around.

Citation: Lorton, Roger. Falklands Wars: 1700 to 1850. A Concise Narrative History. Pomelo Publishing 2020

A history of the Falkland Islands written by lawyers, this undisguised attack on two British hist... more A history of the Falkland Islands written by lawyers, this undisguised attack on two British historians fails to meet strict academic standards; contains very little not previously explored in depth; and repeats old, long-debunked, fantasies.

Guerra de las Islas Falkland: de 1700 a 1850, 2020

A concise history of the Falkland Islands from 1700 to 1850 focusing upon the disputes between France, Great Britain, Spain and Argentina over the Falkland Islands archipelago.

Falklands Wars: 1700 to 1850 A concise narrative history, 2020

Citation: Lorton, Roger. Falklands Wars: 1700 to 1850. A Concise Narrative History. Pomelo Publishing 2020