Rudolf Šoltés - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Rudolf Šoltés

Copyright © 2013 Rudolf Šoltés, Eva Gregušková. This is an open access article distributed under ... more Copyright © 2013 Rudolf Šoltés, Eva Gregušková. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Bryophytes are broadly used as bioindicators. However, the internal distribution of accumulated elements in the moss tissue is little known. Sampling was carried out in The West Carpathians, Slovakia, in autumn 2012. Seven replicates

DVD bolo vydané v rámci projektu NATURA 2000 v celoživotnom vzdelavaní, podporeného zo štrukturál... more DVD bolo vydané v rámci projektu NATURA 2000 v celoživotnom vzdelavaní, podporeného zo štrukturálnych fondov Európskej únie. The DVD was published within the ambit of the project NATURA 2000 in Lifelong Education, supported by Structural Fund of the European Union. DVD vychádza s podporou Ministerstva životného prostredia SR. The DVD was published with the support by Ministry of environment of Slovak Republic.

Abstract. The paper deals with the detailed phytosociological and ecological characteristics of s... more Abstract. The paper deals with the detailed phytosociological and ecological characteristics of spring communities (Montio-Cardaminetea) in the Veľká Fatra Mts (Slovakia, Central Carpathians). Due to its location on the edge of the high Central Carpathians and the variety of substrates, the recorded associations represent almost the complete range of variability of spring vegetation in the Slovak part of Western Carpathians. We found and studied nine plant communities, assigned to four alliances: Cardamino amarae-Chrysosplenietum alternifolii, Caricetum remotae, Carici remotae-Calthetum laetae (Caricion remotae), Philonotido seriatae-Calthetum laetae, Brachythecio rivularis-Cardaminetum opicii (Cratoneuro fi licini-Calthion laetae), Coch-

Oecologia Montana, 2012

This paper deals with chorology, ecology and phytocoenology of Racomitrium ericoides . The specie... more This paper deals with chorology, ecology and phytocoenology of Racomitrium ericoides . The species appears to be the rarest species of the Racomitrium genus in the Tatra Mts. A distribution map of the species in the Tatra Mts. is shown.

Oecologia Montana, 2012

Two altitudinal transects of soil and plant samples from the Kyrgyz Tian-Shan mountains were anal... more Two altitudinal transects of soil and plant samples from the Kyrgyz Tian-Shan mountains were analysed to determine lead contamination. The first transect (Ak-Sai) is located in the Ala-Archa National Park and the second transect (Arashan) is situated in the Issyk-Kul Province. Both the total and the extractable lead concentrations were determined in the soil samples. The lead content was also measured separately in shoots and roots of grass species and in moss tissues as well. Higher values of total soil lead content were found in Arashan which could be attributed to the geological composition of the bedrock, whereas in Ak-Sai, higher amounts of potencially mobile lead forms in the soil were found. Lead concentrations in the shoots of grasses were generally lower than in the root systems. Relatively high amounts of lead were found in mosses, probably reflecting the atmospheric lead pollution. Principal component analysis revealed correlations between altitude and lead concentrations...

Oecologia Montana, 1993

This study reviews the effects of the Winter Olympic Games (of 2002) on the environment of northe... more This study reviews the effects of the Winter Olympic Games (of 2002) on the environment of northern Slovakia. We show that the Olympics will have an adversal effect on the most valuable ecosystems of our country. This study mainly includes the National Parks of the Low and High Tatraa, and provides evidence of the damaging effects of the Games on the biodiversity of the region.

Biologia, 2021

The presented checklist and red list include 231 liverwort (Marchantiophyta) and two hornwort spe... more The presented checklist and red list include 231 liverwort (Marchantiophyta) and two hornwort species (Anthocerotophyta). Overall, 22.9% of liverworts are evaluated as threatened (CR – 4.3%, EN – 7.8%, VU – 10.8%), while 17 of species (7.4%) are categorized as NT, 11.6% as DD and 3.0% as RE. A total of 128 species (55.4% of the liverwort flora of Slovakia) were assessed as LC. For the liverwort Lunularia cruciata the criteria were not applicable (NA), since this species is not native to Slovakia. Currently, only two hornworts are known in Slovakia, of which Anthoceros agrestis is assessed as LC and Phaeoceros carolinianus as NT. The main factors of the liverwort and hornwort endangerment and retreat are anthropogenic changes in natural conditions and degradation of the ecosystems caused by agriculture, forestry, aquaculture, climatic changes, industry, and traffic pollution.

Oecologia Montana, 2010

Turf hummocks co-dominated by Polytrichum formosum and Sphagnum capillifolium arise in different ... more Turf hummocks co-dominated by Polytrichum formosum and Sphagnum capillifolium arise in different ecosystems – alpine heaths, raised bogs and minerotrophic mires. They share common features – with a conjoint origin, ombrotrophy and their separation from substrata. Many studies have looked at turf hummocks, but the question of whether to classify the turf hummocks separately or not is still unsolved. The study area was within the Western Carpathians, from mires in the bottoms of basins, rising to the alpine belt where 79 phytocoenological releves were submitted for numerical classification. The standard procedures of the Zurich-Montpellier School were used and the CANOCO 4.5 package served for all numerical analysis. The new association Vaccinio vitis-idaei – Sphagnetum capillifolii consisting of two subassociations: typicum and eriophoretosum vaginati is suggested. We propose to include the turf hummock communities developed in the mires and fens within the alliance Oxycocco – Empetr...

Oecologia Montana, 2012

The paper deals with the chorology, ecology and phytocoenology of the moss species Racomitrium ma... more The paper deals with the chorology, ecology and phytocoenology of the moss species Racomitrium macounii in the Tatra Mts. The species was recently described and forms two subspecies, subsp. alpinum and subsp. macounii, The subspecies have different distributions and ecology. Both the subspecies are present in the Tatra Mts., though the subsp. macounii occurs very rarely. A distribution map is presented.

Oecologia Montana, 1996

In 1995, 3,746 hectare area of three north facing valleys was attacked by spruce bark beetle. Ove... more In 1995, 3,746 hectare area of three north facing valleys was attacked by spruce bark beetle. Over the years 1986 -1990, 112 moss samples were collected throughout the attacked area adjacent areas. To identify the most adverse agent for forests stands, results of chemical analyses (Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn, Cr, Fe, Mn, Mo) have been submitted to multivariate analyses. Pattern of heavy metal accumulation in attacked area have been compared to the pattern of heavy metal accomulation in not attacked area. The following trends have been revealed: - Disproportion between increasing concentration of Cr and the other elements. - Increase of Mo in the tissues of moss samples collected on the southern slopes. - Increase in Cd and Cr concentrations in the samples collected inside the insect outbreak area.

Oecologia Montana, 2016

The purpose of this work was to use the species Fallopia japonica for monitoring of environmental... more The purpose of this work was to use the species Fallopia japonica for monitoring of environmental burden in the vicinity of Mondi SCP Ružomberok. The species was selected, because it is hyperaccumulator and it creates huge colonies in the field. 11 sampling sites were selected in study area. In addition, one site was selected in a relatively uncontaminated area. With respect to accummulation, underground (rhizomes) and aboveground parts of plants (leaves, shoots, flowers) were compared. The results are compared with the location in the Tatranska Javorina, which is situated in a relatively clean environment. The following elements were determined by X-ray spectrometry: S, Cl, K, Ca, Mn, Fe, Zn, Rb, Sr, Mo, Sb, Pb. The results were submitted to ordination analysis (CANOCO), to factor analysis, correlation analysis and analysis of variance (STATISTICA). Lead and rubidium are predominantly accumulated in flowers, iron in rhizomes and calcium in leaves.

Oecologia Montana, 2018

The research was carried out in the territory of the Bukovske vrchy hills, where natural beech fo... more The research was carried out in the territory of the Bukovske vrchy hills, where natural beech forest stands contain an invaluable genetic reservoir of European beech and other species associated and dependent on these forest habitats. Present study is focused on the creation of local biodiversity hotspots. The structure of local biodiversity valuable areas is based on spatial distribution of indicator species of primeval beech forests and species of conservation interest. Field data on rare bryophytes, vascular plants, macrozoobentos and vertebrates were condensed into GIS layers. The new zonation of the Poloniny National Park was suggested. Spatial distribution of relevant species should be included in the new zonation which we believe will better ensure the protection of beech forests.

Oecologia Montana, 2012

The idea of bryophyte utilization for bioindication arose in seventies (Clymo 1963, Ruhling and T... more The idea of bryophyte utilization for bioindication arose in seventies (Clymo 1963, Ruhling and Tyler 1970). This method is based on the fact, that majority of nutrients receive bryophytes from precipitation or from dry deposition. Bryophytes are more convenient for deposition survey than vascular plants because: (a) they are perennial plants without leafless period, (b) bryophytes have high cation exchange capacity without vital cell function damaging, (c) cuticle is absent. The high cation exchange capacity, lacking cuticle and simple thalli organisation make the bryophytes unable to avoid heavy metal accumulation from deposition (Tyler 1990). With respect to nutritional independence on substratum, the bryophytes are suitable indicators for deposition monitoring, in Europe and in the USA are broadly used for this purpose (Briggs 1972, Ratcliffe 1975, Groet 1976, Gydesen and Rasmussen 1981, Burton 1990, Maňkovska 1997, Maňkovska et al. 2003, 2008, and others). The bryophytes exploi...

Oecologia Montana, 2014

The paper presents current knowledge on ecology and distribution of the bryophyte species Fisside... more The paper presents current knowledge on ecology and distribution of the bryophyte species Fissidens osmundoides in Slovakia. Phytocoenological variation of the species has been processed. Threat status using new criteria was re-assessed.

103 releves of riparian vegetation have been submitted to cluster analyses, five vegetation types... more 103 releves of riparian vegetation have been submitted to cluster analyses, five vegetation types were distinguished: Petasites hybridus, Rubus idaeus - Urtica dioica, Senecio nemorensis, Luzula sylvatica-Dicranum scoparium, Ligusticum mutellina . Every vegetation type is characterized from ecological and floristical viewpoints. Physico-chemical characteristics (Conductivity, pH, dissolved oxygen, redox potential, chemical oxygen demand, calcium carbonate, nitrates, ammonia and chlorides) were plotted as ordination axes (CCA) and some geographical characteristics (bedrock, orientation, chalet presence) were ploted as supplementary environmental variables. Natural or anthropogenic disturbance events result in extra input of nutrients. Some species correlate with environmental variables, e. g. with altitude correlate Anthoxanthum alpinum, Solidago *minuta , with NO3- Chamaerion angustifolium and Petasites hybridus , with NH3 Urtica dioica

Paludella squarrosa belongs to the monotypic genus Paludella (family Meesiaceae). Despite the fac... more Paludella squarrosa belongs to the monotypic genus Paludella (family Meesiaceae). Despite the fact that it is widespread in boreal region, the moss is quite rare in Central Europe. From Slovakia, 4 of 11 historical sites found in literauture were verified and 9 new localities were recently found. Most of historical sites are either completely destroyed, changed by succession or declined. According to our measurements Paludella avoids extremely poor sites and can tolerate higher concentrations of cations: pH 5.57– 7.11, Ca concentration in water 5.34–68.82 mg/l, Mg 2.9–35.78 mg/l and conductivity 69.9–355 microS/cm. Considering vegetation the species finds its optimum in the rich fen alliance Sphagno-Tomenthypnion and calcareous fen alliance Caricion davalliane. The species is probably endangered by strengthened competition with Sphagnum species and vascular plants that takes place after nutrient enrichment and/or water table decrease, especially when the fen is not being managed.

The present work provides the estimation of environmental load in the neighbourhoods of industria... more The present work provides the estimation of environmental load in the neighbourhoods of industrial complex MONDI SCP Ružomberok, northern Slovakia, based on bryophyte bioindication. The samples were collected within three protected areas: Low Tatra National park, Veľka Fatra Mts National park and National Nature Reserve Chocske vrchy Mts, while control sampling near Hrboltova settlement in Liptov Basin was performed. Imissions accumulated during winter in the snow after its melting did not affect significantly the concentrations of imissions in the tissues of bioindicator. A significant correlation was found with altitude in copper, molybdenum and lead. Contamination by Cu, Mn, Mo, Zn, Cr, Rb, and Ba caused by MONDI SCP the authors do not suppose. Emission sources were located NW, i. e. Krakow region, Silesia, Orava or Ostrava region, only in the case of sulphur is a local source probable.

Copyright © 2013 Rudolf Šoltés, Eva Gregušková. This is an open access article distributed under ... more Copyright © 2013 Rudolf Šoltés, Eva Gregušková. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Bryophytes are broadly used as bioindicators. However, the internal distribution of accumulated elements in the moss tissue is little known. Sampling was carried out in The West Carpathians, Slovakia, in autumn 2012. Seven replicates

DVD bolo vydané v rámci projektu NATURA 2000 v celoživotnom vzdelavaní, podporeného zo štrukturál... more DVD bolo vydané v rámci projektu NATURA 2000 v celoživotnom vzdelavaní, podporeného zo štrukturálnych fondov Európskej únie. The DVD was published within the ambit of the project NATURA 2000 in Lifelong Education, supported by Structural Fund of the European Union. DVD vychádza s podporou Ministerstva životného prostredia SR. The DVD was published with the support by Ministry of environment of Slovak Republic.

Abstract. The paper deals with the detailed phytosociological and ecological characteristics of s... more Abstract. The paper deals with the detailed phytosociological and ecological characteristics of spring communities (Montio-Cardaminetea) in the Veľká Fatra Mts (Slovakia, Central Carpathians). Due to its location on the edge of the high Central Carpathians and the variety of substrates, the recorded associations represent almost the complete range of variability of spring vegetation in the Slovak part of Western Carpathians. We found and studied nine plant communities, assigned to four alliances: Cardamino amarae-Chrysosplenietum alternifolii, Caricetum remotae, Carici remotae-Calthetum laetae (Caricion remotae), Philonotido seriatae-Calthetum laetae, Brachythecio rivularis-Cardaminetum opicii (Cratoneuro fi licini-Calthion laetae), Coch-

Oecologia Montana, 2012

This paper deals with chorology, ecology and phytocoenology of Racomitrium ericoides . The specie... more This paper deals with chorology, ecology and phytocoenology of Racomitrium ericoides . The species appears to be the rarest species of the Racomitrium genus in the Tatra Mts. A distribution map of the species in the Tatra Mts. is shown.

Oecologia Montana, 2012

Two altitudinal transects of soil and plant samples from the Kyrgyz Tian-Shan mountains were anal... more Two altitudinal transects of soil and plant samples from the Kyrgyz Tian-Shan mountains were analysed to determine lead contamination. The first transect (Ak-Sai) is located in the Ala-Archa National Park and the second transect (Arashan) is situated in the Issyk-Kul Province. Both the total and the extractable lead concentrations were determined in the soil samples. The lead content was also measured separately in shoots and roots of grass species and in moss tissues as well. Higher values of total soil lead content were found in Arashan which could be attributed to the geological composition of the bedrock, whereas in Ak-Sai, higher amounts of potencially mobile lead forms in the soil were found. Lead concentrations in the shoots of grasses were generally lower than in the root systems. Relatively high amounts of lead were found in mosses, probably reflecting the atmospheric lead pollution. Principal component analysis revealed correlations between altitude and lead concentrations...

Oecologia Montana, 1993

This study reviews the effects of the Winter Olympic Games (of 2002) on the environment of northe... more This study reviews the effects of the Winter Olympic Games (of 2002) on the environment of northern Slovakia. We show that the Olympics will have an adversal effect on the most valuable ecosystems of our country. This study mainly includes the National Parks of the Low and High Tatraa, and provides evidence of the damaging effects of the Games on the biodiversity of the region.

Biologia, 2021

The presented checklist and red list include 231 liverwort (Marchantiophyta) and two hornwort spe... more The presented checklist and red list include 231 liverwort (Marchantiophyta) and two hornwort species (Anthocerotophyta). Overall, 22.9% of liverworts are evaluated as threatened (CR – 4.3%, EN – 7.8%, VU – 10.8%), while 17 of species (7.4%) are categorized as NT, 11.6% as DD and 3.0% as RE. A total of 128 species (55.4% of the liverwort flora of Slovakia) were assessed as LC. For the liverwort Lunularia cruciata the criteria were not applicable (NA), since this species is not native to Slovakia. Currently, only two hornworts are known in Slovakia, of which Anthoceros agrestis is assessed as LC and Phaeoceros carolinianus as NT. The main factors of the liverwort and hornwort endangerment and retreat are anthropogenic changes in natural conditions and degradation of the ecosystems caused by agriculture, forestry, aquaculture, climatic changes, industry, and traffic pollution.

Oecologia Montana, 2010

Turf hummocks co-dominated by Polytrichum formosum and Sphagnum capillifolium arise in different ... more Turf hummocks co-dominated by Polytrichum formosum and Sphagnum capillifolium arise in different ecosystems – alpine heaths, raised bogs and minerotrophic mires. They share common features – with a conjoint origin, ombrotrophy and their separation from substrata. Many studies have looked at turf hummocks, but the question of whether to classify the turf hummocks separately or not is still unsolved. The study area was within the Western Carpathians, from mires in the bottoms of basins, rising to the alpine belt where 79 phytocoenological releves were submitted for numerical classification. The standard procedures of the Zurich-Montpellier School were used and the CANOCO 4.5 package served for all numerical analysis. The new association Vaccinio vitis-idaei – Sphagnetum capillifolii consisting of two subassociations: typicum and eriophoretosum vaginati is suggested. We propose to include the turf hummock communities developed in the mires and fens within the alliance Oxycocco – Empetr...

Oecologia Montana, 2012

The paper deals with the chorology, ecology and phytocoenology of the moss species Racomitrium ma... more The paper deals with the chorology, ecology and phytocoenology of the moss species Racomitrium macounii in the Tatra Mts. The species was recently described and forms two subspecies, subsp. alpinum and subsp. macounii, The subspecies have different distributions and ecology. Both the subspecies are present in the Tatra Mts., though the subsp. macounii occurs very rarely. A distribution map is presented.

Oecologia Montana, 1996

In 1995, 3,746 hectare area of three north facing valleys was attacked by spruce bark beetle. Ove... more In 1995, 3,746 hectare area of three north facing valleys was attacked by spruce bark beetle. Over the years 1986 -1990, 112 moss samples were collected throughout the attacked area adjacent areas. To identify the most adverse agent for forests stands, results of chemical analyses (Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn, Cr, Fe, Mn, Mo) have been submitted to multivariate analyses. Pattern of heavy metal accumulation in attacked area have been compared to the pattern of heavy metal accomulation in not attacked area. The following trends have been revealed: - Disproportion between increasing concentration of Cr and the other elements. - Increase of Mo in the tissues of moss samples collected on the southern slopes. - Increase in Cd and Cr concentrations in the samples collected inside the insect outbreak area.

Oecologia Montana, 2016

The purpose of this work was to use the species Fallopia japonica for monitoring of environmental... more The purpose of this work was to use the species Fallopia japonica for monitoring of environmental burden in the vicinity of Mondi SCP Ružomberok. The species was selected, because it is hyperaccumulator and it creates huge colonies in the field. 11 sampling sites were selected in study area. In addition, one site was selected in a relatively uncontaminated area. With respect to accummulation, underground (rhizomes) and aboveground parts of plants (leaves, shoots, flowers) were compared. The results are compared with the location in the Tatranska Javorina, which is situated in a relatively clean environment. The following elements were determined by X-ray spectrometry: S, Cl, K, Ca, Mn, Fe, Zn, Rb, Sr, Mo, Sb, Pb. The results were submitted to ordination analysis (CANOCO), to factor analysis, correlation analysis and analysis of variance (STATISTICA). Lead and rubidium are predominantly accumulated in flowers, iron in rhizomes and calcium in leaves.

Oecologia Montana, 2018

The research was carried out in the territory of the Bukovske vrchy hills, where natural beech fo... more The research was carried out in the territory of the Bukovske vrchy hills, where natural beech forest stands contain an invaluable genetic reservoir of European beech and other species associated and dependent on these forest habitats. Present study is focused on the creation of local biodiversity hotspots. The structure of local biodiversity valuable areas is based on spatial distribution of indicator species of primeval beech forests and species of conservation interest. Field data on rare bryophytes, vascular plants, macrozoobentos and vertebrates were condensed into GIS layers. The new zonation of the Poloniny National Park was suggested. Spatial distribution of relevant species should be included in the new zonation which we believe will better ensure the protection of beech forests.

Oecologia Montana, 2012

The idea of bryophyte utilization for bioindication arose in seventies (Clymo 1963, Ruhling and T... more The idea of bryophyte utilization for bioindication arose in seventies (Clymo 1963, Ruhling and Tyler 1970). This method is based on the fact, that majority of nutrients receive bryophytes from precipitation or from dry deposition. Bryophytes are more convenient for deposition survey than vascular plants because: (a) they are perennial plants without leafless period, (b) bryophytes have high cation exchange capacity without vital cell function damaging, (c) cuticle is absent. The high cation exchange capacity, lacking cuticle and simple thalli organisation make the bryophytes unable to avoid heavy metal accumulation from deposition (Tyler 1990). With respect to nutritional independence on substratum, the bryophytes are suitable indicators for deposition monitoring, in Europe and in the USA are broadly used for this purpose (Briggs 1972, Ratcliffe 1975, Groet 1976, Gydesen and Rasmussen 1981, Burton 1990, Maňkovska 1997, Maňkovska et al. 2003, 2008, and others). The bryophytes exploi...

Oecologia Montana, 2014

The paper presents current knowledge on ecology and distribution of the bryophyte species Fisside... more The paper presents current knowledge on ecology and distribution of the bryophyte species Fissidens osmundoides in Slovakia. Phytocoenological variation of the species has been processed. Threat status using new criteria was re-assessed.

103 releves of riparian vegetation have been submitted to cluster analyses, five vegetation types... more 103 releves of riparian vegetation have been submitted to cluster analyses, five vegetation types were distinguished: Petasites hybridus, Rubus idaeus - Urtica dioica, Senecio nemorensis, Luzula sylvatica-Dicranum scoparium, Ligusticum mutellina . Every vegetation type is characterized from ecological and floristical viewpoints. Physico-chemical characteristics (Conductivity, pH, dissolved oxygen, redox potential, chemical oxygen demand, calcium carbonate, nitrates, ammonia and chlorides) were plotted as ordination axes (CCA) and some geographical characteristics (bedrock, orientation, chalet presence) were ploted as supplementary environmental variables. Natural or anthropogenic disturbance events result in extra input of nutrients. Some species correlate with environmental variables, e. g. with altitude correlate Anthoxanthum alpinum, Solidago *minuta , with NO3- Chamaerion angustifolium and Petasites hybridus , with NH3 Urtica dioica

Paludella squarrosa belongs to the monotypic genus Paludella (family Meesiaceae). Despite the fac... more Paludella squarrosa belongs to the monotypic genus Paludella (family Meesiaceae). Despite the fact that it is widespread in boreal region, the moss is quite rare in Central Europe. From Slovakia, 4 of 11 historical sites found in literauture were verified and 9 new localities were recently found. Most of historical sites are either completely destroyed, changed by succession or declined. According to our measurements Paludella avoids extremely poor sites and can tolerate higher concentrations of cations: pH 5.57– 7.11, Ca concentration in water 5.34–68.82 mg/l, Mg 2.9–35.78 mg/l and conductivity 69.9–355 microS/cm. Considering vegetation the species finds its optimum in the rich fen alliance Sphagno-Tomenthypnion and calcareous fen alliance Caricion davalliane. The species is probably endangered by strengthened competition with Sphagnum species and vascular plants that takes place after nutrient enrichment and/or water table decrease, especially when the fen is not being managed.

The present work provides the estimation of environmental load in the neighbourhoods of industria... more The present work provides the estimation of environmental load in the neighbourhoods of industrial complex MONDI SCP Ružomberok, northern Slovakia, based on bryophyte bioindication. The samples were collected within three protected areas: Low Tatra National park, Veľka Fatra Mts National park and National Nature Reserve Chocske vrchy Mts, while control sampling near Hrboltova settlement in Liptov Basin was performed. Imissions accumulated during winter in the snow after its melting did not affect significantly the concentrations of imissions in the tissues of bioindicator. A significant correlation was found with altitude in copper, molybdenum and lead. Contamination by Cu, Mn, Mo, Zn, Cr, Rb, and Ba caused by MONDI SCP the authors do not suppose. Emission sources were located NW, i. e. Krakow region, Silesia, Orava or Ostrava region, only in the case of sulphur is a local source probable.