Saral Jhingran - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Saral Jhingran

Research paper thumbnail of Dharma Means Righteousness And Not Mere Outer Religiosity

Research paper thumbnail of Madrasa Education in Modern India: A Study

Foreword Preface Society, Religion, Education & Modernity Reasons for Some Muslims' Prefe... more Foreword Preface Society, Religion, Education & Modernity Reasons for Some Muslims' Preference for Madrasa Education: Trying to Understand the Issues Involved Historical Background of Madrasa Education Madrasa Nisabs: An Effort to Understand Them and a Critique Islam, Sharia, Women and Their Education Madrasa 'Reforms' (I): Reforms from Within Madrasa 'Reforms' (II): Schemes for 'Modernization of Madrasas' Concluding Remarks Bibliography Index.

Research paper thumbnail of Kant's Categorical Imperative and Human Rights

Research paper thumbnail of An inquiry into ethical relativism of Hindu thought

Research paper thumbnail of Modern Western Conception of Justice as Equality before the Law and Dharmaśāstras * 2

Applied Ethics and Human Rights : Conceptual Analysis.., 2011

In the West since the Enlightenment there is greater emphasis on the idea of justice mostly under... more In the West since the Enlightenment there is greater emphasis on the idea of justice mostly understood in terms of safeguarding the rights of all members of the society. Mostly no philosophical justification is provided; yet there is a humanitarian approach behind this assertion of human right. In ancient India they asserted a profound vision of one Absolute (Brahman) as the Source, Ground and Inner Controller or Self (Atman) of all living beings, as well as the entire creation. If so, then there can be no basis for discrimination between man and man. But this did not happen, and different sections (varna) of society were not only treated differently in practice, but also before the law, where quite inhuman laws were sanctioned.

Research paper thumbnail of KANT'S 'CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE': AS THE FOUMDATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Rights of human beings per se were first asserted in the Enlightenment period, but there was no a... more Rights of human beings per se were first asserted in the Enlightenment period, but there was no attempt at their philosophical justification till Kant gave it by his theory of reason as both the essence of human beings, as well as the source of all morality. Kant further postulated the categorical imperative as not only the foundation of all morality, but also that of human dignity, so that every person becomes an end-in-him/ herself, and no one else could ever make him/her a means of one's interests. This provides the basis of an unconditional assertion of human dignity and rights.

Research paper thumbnail of KANT'S 'CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE': AS THE FOUMDATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Indian Philosophocal Quarterly, 0

Rights of human beings per se were first asserted in the Enlightenment period, but there was no a... more Rights of human beings per se were first asserted in the Enlightenment period, but there was no attempt at their philosophical justification till Kant gave it by his theory of reason as both the essence of human beings, as well as the source of all morality. Kant further postulated the categorical imperative as not only the foundation of all morality, but also that of human dignity, so that every person becomes an end-in-him/ herself, and no one else could ever make him/her a means of one's interests. This provides the basis of an unconditional assertion of human dignity and rights.

Research paper thumbnail of Final SUFISM and its Impact 2

Sufism is a somewhat heterodox tradition of Islam which has gradually become an integral part of ... more Sufism is a somewhat heterodox tradition of Islam which has gradually become an integral part of popular Islam. It has certain elements, like emphasis on the love of God as the all-in-all, need for transcending one's ego, which brings it closer to mystical aspects of other world religions. As such, it has a universal appeal, and also affirms religious tolerance, generally not found in Semitic religions. In India, Sufi saints were instrumental to the development of a culture of mutual sharing and harmony.

Research paper thumbnail of SUFISM: A "MYSTICO-RELIGIOUS" ASPECT OF ISLAM: ITS IMPACT ON INDIA'S RELIGIO-SOCIAL CULTURE

Sufism is a somewhat heterodox tradition of Islam which has gradually become an integral part of ... more Sufism is a somewhat heterodox tradition of Islam which has gradually become an integral part of popular Islam. It has certain elements, like emphasis on the love of God as the all-in-all, need for transcending one's ego, which brings it closer to mystical aspects of other world religions. As such, it has a universal appeal, and also affirms religious tolerance, generally not found in Semitic religions. In India, Sufi saints were instrumental to the development of a culture of mutual sharing and harmony.

Research paper thumbnail of Why be Moral A Final Attempt to Justify Morality

My experience around me has led me to wonder how it is that people who are so nice and friendl... more My experience around me has led me to wonder how it is that people who are so nice and friendly among their friends and peers act in practical life rejecting all moral rules, undermining the interests and rights of others when they find that acting in that way helps them to realize their interests better. In almost every field of life most people are willing to cheat on taxes to the State, deceive others in business and so on. Most people never extend a helping hand to any human being who is in dire need of help, as an accident victim. The total lack of any feeling of guilt when we are harming others for achieving our interests, doing some illegal work, or simply gawking at some one who is in urgent need of help means a total rejection of the authority of moral demands . Most of us are not even conscious that they are doing some thing blameworthy, or against humanity of both the other person whom we are harming directly or indirectly, and even our own human dignity. There are some others who are conscious of the moral demand, may be feel uncomfortable going against the moral laws. It is these people who ask, ‘Why should I be moral, when mine and my dear ones’ interests are best served by the amoral way we are acting now?’

Here I mean by morality or ethics as the discipline that tells us what to do and what to ’be’. Morality consists of some fundamental/foundational moral principles which are universal; that is, are applicable to all human beings not only in similar circumstances, but almost always by virtue of our common humanity. When I talk of morality I am not talking of individual moralities determined by this or that culture ; but the morality which is both culture-neutral, and applies to all human beings per se. This position is vehemently opposed by cultural relativists who emphasize the uniqueness of all separate moralities which are the unquestionable criteria for the people of that particular culture.

My main contention is that in as much as all human beings are basically akin to each other in their needs, desires, and responses to life situations , there must be some ethical imperatives which in some way are based on the human nature or its common needs, and are therefore necessarily common to all cultures. This does not deny the individuality of separate moralities, but asserts the right of universal morality to critique those aspects of separate moralities which go against human good. I believe , along with several post-Kantian rationalist ethical thinkers, that basic moral principles must be universal, that is, applicable to all human beings per se, that is, must be universalizable, reversible and for the good of all men This simply emphasizes the inherent equality of all human beings.

While all immoral acts are inspired by our self-centredness, sympathy or sympathetic imagination, as pointed by Hume, brings all men closer together. The awareness of the other person’s needs and responses to life situations makes us more humane and moral. Nagel argues for the need of self-transcendence which frees us from the bondage of our ego, makes us conscious of the needs of others, and would motivate us to treat others at an equal level and even help them in time of their need. We should also not forget Kant’s assertion of dignity of human being by virtue of both his/her rationality and humanity. Those who ask why they should be moral and sacrifice their self interests, should be answered that they are human beings and by choosing an immoral way of life, they would destroy their very humanity.

I would welcome opinions/ critical comments on this paper.

Research paper thumbnail of Cultural Nationalism is a Fertile Ground for Various Kinds of Terrorism

Research paper thumbnail of Cultural Nationalism is a Fertile Ground for Various Kinds of Terrorism

Research paper thumbnail of An inquiry into ethical relativism of Hindu thought

Research paper thumbnail of Madrasa Education in Modern India: A Study

Foreword Preface Society, Religion, Education & Modernity Reasons for Some Muslims' Preferenc... more Foreword Preface Society, Religion, Education & Modernity Reasons for Some Muslims' Preference for Madrasa Education: Trying to Understand the Issues Involved Historical Background of Madrasa Education Madrasa Nisabs: An Effort to Understand Them and a Critique Islam, Sharia, Women and Their Education Madrasa 'Reforms' (I): Reforms from Within Madrasa 'Reforms' (II): Schemes for 'Modernization of Madrasas' Concluding Remarks Bibliography Index.

Research paper thumbnail of Religion and communalism

Research paper thumbnail of Aspects of Hindu morality

Choice Reviews Online

Hinduism is an integrated whole in which religion, philosophy, morality and social culture are so... more Hinduism is an integrated whole in which religion, philosophy, morality and social culture are so intimately related, that neither morality, nor any other aspect of Hinduism, can be studied in isolation without reference to its other aspects. This work seeks to critically study Hindu ethics.

Research paper thumbnail of Madrasa Modernisation Programme

Economic and Political Weekly, Dec 31, 2005

... There are a few madrasas only for girls, and they have a separate curriculum, keeping in ... ... more ... There are a few madrasas only for girls, and they have a separate curriculum, keeping in ... For thepresent, the government would do well to focus its efforts on ensuring improved functioning ... Even otherwise this so-called all-India survey has covered a small number of madrasas ...

Research paper thumbnail of Modern Western Conception of Justice as Equality before the Law and Dharmaśāstras

Conceptual Analysis and Contextual Applications, 2009

... is a complex 'religio-culture'in which it's various strands or tra... more ... is a complex 'religio-culture'in which it's various strands or traditions both contradict and complement each other.(Jhingran 1999: 3, 28 ... Notes 1 See Webb, Sidney and Beatrice,'Inequality and Personal Freedom', in Ebenstein, W, ed, 1970, Modern Political Thought, Indian edition ...

Research paper thumbnail of WHY BE MORAL? A FINAL ATTEMPT TO JUSTIFY MORALITY

Why Be Moral?, 2017

My experience around me has led me to wonder how it is that people who are so nice and friendly a... more My experience around me has led me to wonder how it is that people who are so nice and friendly among their friends and peers act in practical life rejecting all moral rules, undermining the interests and rights of others when they find that acting in that way helps them to realize their interests better. In almost every field of life most people are willing to cheat on taxes to the State, deceive others in business and so on. Most people never extend a helping hand to any human being who is in dire need of help, as an accident victim. The total lack of any feeling of guilt when we are harming others for achieving our interests, doing some illegal work, or simply gawking at some one who is in urgent need of help means a total rejection of the authority of moral demands. Most of us are not even conscious that they are doing some thing blameworthy, or against humanity of both the other person whom we are harming directly or indirectly, and even our own human dignity. There are some others who are conscious of the moral demand, may be feel uncomfortable going against the moral laws. It is these people who ask, 'Why should I be moral, when mine and my dear ones' interests are best served by the amoral way we are acting now?' Here I mean by morality or ethics as the discipline that tells us what to do and what to 'be'. Morality consists of some fundamental/foundational moral principles which are universal; that is, are applicable to all human beings not only in similar circumstances, but almost always by virtue of our common humanity. When I talk of morality I am not talking of individual moralities determined by this or that culture ; but the morality which is both culture-neutral, and applies to all human beings per se. This position is vehemently opposed by cultural relativists who emphasize the uniqueness of all separate moralities which are the unquestionable criteria for the people of that particular culture. My main contention is that in as much as all human beings are basically akin to each other in their needs, desires, and responses to life situations , there must be some ethical imperatives which in some way are based on the human nature or its common needs, and are therefore necessarily common to all cultures. This does not deny the individuality of separate moralities, but asserts the right of universal morality to critique those aspects of separate moralities which go against human good. I believe , along with several post-Kantian rationalist ethical thinkers, that basic moral principles must be universal, that is, applicable to all human beings per se. Nielsen, Bair and others have rightly asserted that fundamental moral principles must be 1. universalizable, 2. reversible and 3 for the good of all men. Reversibility means that whatever treatment a man gives to another, he should agree that the other has the same right to treat him in a similar manner. This simply emphasizes the inherent equality of all human beings.
Several ethicists remind us of Hume’s argument that ‘aught’ can not be derived from ‘is’. But Hume himself talked of human sympathy that brings us beyond our petty selves and near all other human beings. While all immoral acts are inspired by our self-centredness, sympathy or sympathetic imagination brings all men closer together. The awareness of the other person’s needs and responses to life situations makes us more humane and moral. Nagel argues for the need of self-transcendence which frees us from the bondage of our ego, makes us conscious of the needs of others, and would motivate us to treat others at an equal level and even help them in time of their need. We should also not forget Kant’s assertion of dignity of man by virtue of both his rationality and humanity. Those who ask why they should be moral and sacrifice their self interests, should be answered that they are human beings and by choosing an immoral way of life, they would destroy their very humanity.

Research paper thumbnail of A SEARCH FOR FOUNDATIONAL MORAL PRINCIPLES AND THEIR JUSTIFICATION

Book: Why be Moral: A Search for a final Justification of Morality, 1997

There are immense differences among human beings-cultural, religious, linguistic and even moral. ... more There are immense differences among human beings-cultural, religious, linguistic and even moral. But differences being more striking we recognize them more easily than the similarities in human nature, their basic needs and responses to life situations. While cultural-ethical relativists stress the former, a large number of thinkers from Hume, Sidgwick and Kant to modern Kantian rationalists, as Baier, Taylor, Stace, Nielsen and Nagel, recognize and stress the affinity between man and man, and their right to perfect equality of treatment. They also affirm that there has to be a core universal morality that both applies to and aims at the good of all human beings alike. This universal morality does not deny the existence of different cultures and their moralities, but claims supremacy for itself in case of any conflict between the two. Like different moralities, there are various moral theories which argue for different sources, content and criteria for judging moral assertions, such as approval theories, both subjective and social (moral code), intuition theories and rationalist theories. This paper discusses them, and finds the rationalist theories much more reasonable and comprehensive. It also argues that a dialogue between various ethicists with an objective, person-neutral approach can make us recognize both the positive points of different theories, as also that they, with a few exceptions, share many a common moral principles and values. Once this is realized we can arrive at a basic minimal morality shared by all cultures and their moralities. The moral rules of any, especially universal morality, need, in turn, to be justified, and for that we have to presuppose second order moral principles which, according to Hare, Baier and other ethicists cannot be further justified. There is some talk of personal decision, with which I do not agree. In the second section of this paper, I have tried to search and enumerate some universal moral principles and virtues which are, with the exception of a few, are acknowledged by different cultures and thinkers, such as-i. Universality-cum reversibility; ii Basic equality and interdependence of all human beings. This implies seeing others not as an 'other' but as oneself or at least akin to oneself. iii. Justice based on equality. iv. Ahimsa or not hurting others. v. Benevolence or kindness. vi. Self-transcendence or unselfishness. vii. Truthfulness, moral integrity and self-discipline, and viii, Mutual toleration. This is neither an exhaustive list, nor is it compulsory. However, I feel that 'looking at others as like oneself', which is another form of the Golden rule is in some way the most important or foundational virtue.

Research paper thumbnail of Dharma Means Righteousness And Not Mere Outer Religiosity

Research paper thumbnail of Madrasa Education in Modern India: A Study

Foreword Preface Society, Religion, Education & Modernity Reasons for Some Muslims' Prefe... more Foreword Preface Society, Religion, Education & Modernity Reasons for Some Muslims' Preference for Madrasa Education: Trying to Understand the Issues Involved Historical Background of Madrasa Education Madrasa Nisabs: An Effort to Understand Them and a Critique Islam, Sharia, Women and Their Education Madrasa 'Reforms' (I): Reforms from Within Madrasa 'Reforms' (II): Schemes for 'Modernization of Madrasas' Concluding Remarks Bibliography Index.

Research paper thumbnail of Kant's Categorical Imperative and Human Rights

Research paper thumbnail of An inquiry into ethical relativism of Hindu thought

Research paper thumbnail of Modern Western Conception of Justice as Equality before the Law and Dharmaśāstras * 2

Applied Ethics and Human Rights : Conceptual Analysis.., 2011

In the West since the Enlightenment there is greater emphasis on the idea of justice mostly under... more In the West since the Enlightenment there is greater emphasis on the idea of justice mostly understood in terms of safeguarding the rights of all members of the society. Mostly no philosophical justification is provided; yet there is a humanitarian approach behind this assertion of human right. In ancient India they asserted a profound vision of one Absolute (Brahman) as the Source, Ground and Inner Controller or Self (Atman) of all living beings, as well as the entire creation. If so, then there can be no basis for discrimination between man and man. But this did not happen, and different sections (varna) of society were not only treated differently in practice, but also before the law, where quite inhuman laws were sanctioned.

Research paper thumbnail of KANT'S 'CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE': AS THE FOUMDATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Rights of human beings per se were first asserted in the Enlightenment period, but there was no a... more Rights of human beings per se were first asserted in the Enlightenment period, but there was no attempt at their philosophical justification till Kant gave it by his theory of reason as both the essence of human beings, as well as the source of all morality. Kant further postulated the categorical imperative as not only the foundation of all morality, but also that of human dignity, so that every person becomes an end-in-him/ herself, and no one else could ever make him/her a means of one's interests. This provides the basis of an unconditional assertion of human dignity and rights.

Research paper thumbnail of KANT'S 'CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE': AS THE FOUMDATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Indian Philosophocal Quarterly, 0

Rights of human beings per se were first asserted in the Enlightenment period, but there was no a... more Rights of human beings per se were first asserted in the Enlightenment period, but there was no attempt at their philosophical justification till Kant gave it by his theory of reason as both the essence of human beings, as well as the source of all morality. Kant further postulated the categorical imperative as not only the foundation of all morality, but also that of human dignity, so that every person becomes an end-in-him/ herself, and no one else could ever make him/her a means of one's interests. This provides the basis of an unconditional assertion of human dignity and rights.

Research paper thumbnail of Final SUFISM and its Impact 2

Sufism is a somewhat heterodox tradition of Islam which has gradually become an integral part of ... more Sufism is a somewhat heterodox tradition of Islam which has gradually become an integral part of popular Islam. It has certain elements, like emphasis on the love of God as the all-in-all, need for transcending one's ego, which brings it closer to mystical aspects of other world religions. As such, it has a universal appeal, and also affirms religious tolerance, generally not found in Semitic religions. In India, Sufi saints were instrumental to the development of a culture of mutual sharing and harmony.

Research paper thumbnail of SUFISM: A "MYSTICO-RELIGIOUS" ASPECT OF ISLAM: ITS IMPACT ON INDIA'S RELIGIO-SOCIAL CULTURE

Sufism is a somewhat heterodox tradition of Islam which has gradually become an integral part of ... more Sufism is a somewhat heterodox tradition of Islam which has gradually become an integral part of popular Islam. It has certain elements, like emphasis on the love of God as the all-in-all, need for transcending one's ego, which brings it closer to mystical aspects of other world religions. As such, it has a universal appeal, and also affirms religious tolerance, generally not found in Semitic religions. In India, Sufi saints were instrumental to the development of a culture of mutual sharing and harmony.

Research paper thumbnail of Why be Moral A Final Attempt to Justify Morality

My experience around me has led me to wonder how it is that people who are so nice and friendl... more My experience around me has led me to wonder how it is that people who are so nice and friendly among their friends and peers act in practical life rejecting all moral rules, undermining the interests and rights of others when they find that acting in that way helps them to realize their interests better. In almost every field of life most people are willing to cheat on taxes to the State, deceive others in business and so on. Most people never extend a helping hand to any human being who is in dire need of help, as an accident victim. The total lack of any feeling of guilt when we are harming others for achieving our interests, doing some illegal work, or simply gawking at some one who is in urgent need of help means a total rejection of the authority of moral demands . Most of us are not even conscious that they are doing some thing blameworthy, or against humanity of both the other person whom we are harming directly or indirectly, and even our own human dignity. There are some others who are conscious of the moral demand, may be feel uncomfortable going against the moral laws. It is these people who ask, ‘Why should I be moral, when mine and my dear ones’ interests are best served by the amoral way we are acting now?’

Here I mean by morality or ethics as the discipline that tells us what to do and what to ’be’. Morality consists of some fundamental/foundational moral principles which are universal; that is, are applicable to all human beings not only in similar circumstances, but almost always by virtue of our common humanity. When I talk of morality I am not talking of individual moralities determined by this or that culture ; but the morality which is both culture-neutral, and applies to all human beings per se. This position is vehemently opposed by cultural relativists who emphasize the uniqueness of all separate moralities which are the unquestionable criteria for the people of that particular culture.

My main contention is that in as much as all human beings are basically akin to each other in their needs, desires, and responses to life situations , there must be some ethical imperatives which in some way are based on the human nature or its common needs, and are therefore necessarily common to all cultures. This does not deny the individuality of separate moralities, but asserts the right of universal morality to critique those aspects of separate moralities which go against human good. I believe , along with several post-Kantian rationalist ethical thinkers, that basic moral principles must be universal, that is, applicable to all human beings per se, that is, must be universalizable, reversible and for the good of all men This simply emphasizes the inherent equality of all human beings.

While all immoral acts are inspired by our self-centredness, sympathy or sympathetic imagination, as pointed by Hume, brings all men closer together. The awareness of the other person’s needs and responses to life situations makes us more humane and moral. Nagel argues for the need of self-transcendence which frees us from the bondage of our ego, makes us conscious of the needs of others, and would motivate us to treat others at an equal level and even help them in time of their need. We should also not forget Kant’s assertion of dignity of human being by virtue of both his/her rationality and humanity. Those who ask why they should be moral and sacrifice their self interests, should be answered that they are human beings and by choosing an immoral way of life, they would destroy their very humanity.

I would welcome opinions/ critical comments on this paper.

Research paper thumbnail of Cultural Nationalism is a Fertile Ground for Various Kinds of Terrorism

Research paper thumbnail of Cultural Nationalism is a Fertile Ground for Various Kinds of Terrorism

Research paper thumbnail of An inquiry into ethical relativism of Hindu thought

Research paper thumbnail of Madrasa Education in Modern India: A Study

Foreword Preface Society, Religion, Education & Modernity Reasons for Some Muslims' Preferenc... more Foreword Preface Society, Religion, Education & Modernity Reasons for Some Muslims' Preference for Madrasa Education: Trying to Understand the Issues Involved Historical Background of Madrasa Education Madrasa Nisabs: An Effort to Understand Them and a Critique Islam, Sharia, Women and Their Education Madrasa 'Reforms' (I): Reforms from Within Madrasa 'Reforms' (II): Schemes for 'Modernization of Madrasas' Concluding Remarks Bibliography Index.

Research paper thumbnail of Religion and communalism

Research paper thumbnail of Aspects of Hindu morality

Choice Reviews Online

Hinduism is an integrated whole in which religion, philosophy, morality and social culture are so... more Hinduism is an integrated whole in which religion, philosophy, morality and social culture are so intimately related, that neither morality, nor any other aspect of Hinduism, can be studied in isolation without reference to its other aspects. This work seeks to critically study Hindu ethics.

Research paper thumbnail of Madrasa Modernisation Programme

Economic and Political Weekly, Dec 31, 2005

... There are a few madrasas only for girls, and they have a separate curriculum, keeping in ... ... more ... There are a few madrasas only for girls, and they have a separate curriculum, keeping in ... For thepresent, the government would do well to focus its efforts on ensuring improved functioning ... Even otherwise this so-called all-India survey has covered a small number of madrasas ...

Research paper thumbnail of Modern Western Conception of Justice as Equality before the Law and Dharmaśāstras

Conceptual Analysis and Contextual Applications, 2009

... is a complex 'religio-culture'in which it's various strands or tra... more ... is a complex 'religio-culture'in which it's various strands or traditions both contradict and complement each other.(Jhingran 1999: 3, 28 ... Notes 1 See Webb, Sidney and Beatrice,'Inequality and Personal Freedom', in Ebenstein, W, ed, 1970, Modern Political Thought, Indian edition ...

Research paper thumbnail of WHY BE MORAL? A FINAL ATTEMPT TO JUSTIFY MORALITY

Why Be Moral?, 2017

My experience around me has led me to wonder how it is that people who are so nice and friendly a... more My experience around me has led me to wonder how it is that people who are so nice and friendly among their friends and peers act in practical life rejecting all moral rules, undermining the interests and rights of others when they find that acting in that way helps them to realize their interests better. In almost every field of life most people are willing to cheat on taxes to the State, deceive others in business and so on. Most people never extend a helping hand to any human being who is in dire need of help, as an accident victim. The total lack of any feeling of guilt when we are harming others for achieving our interests, doing some illegal work, or simply gawking at some one who is in urgent need of help means a total rejection of the authority of moral demands. Most of us are not even conscious that they are doing some thing blameworthy, or against humanity of both the other person whom we are harming directly or indirectly, and even our own human dignity. There are some others who are conscious of the moral demand, may be feel uncomfortable going against the moral laws. It is these people who ask, 'Why should I be moral, when mine and my dear ones' interests are best served by the amoral way we are acting now?' Here I mean by morality or ethics as the discipline that tells us what to do and what to 'be'. Morality consists of some fundamental/foundational moral principles which are universal; that is, are applicable to all human beings not only in similar circumstances, but almost always by virtue of our common humanity. When I talk of morality I am not talking of individual moralities determined by this or that culture ; but the morality which is both culture-neutral, and applies to all human beings per se. This position is vehemently opposed by cultural relativists who emphasize the uniqueness of all separate moralities which are the unquestionable criteria for the people of that particular culture. My main contention is that in as much as all human beings are basically akin to each other in their needs, desires, and responses to life situations , there must be some ethical imperatives which in some way are based on the human nature or its common needs, and are therefore necessarily common to all cultures. This does not deny the individuality of separate moralities, but asserts the right of universal morality to critique those aspects of separate moralities which go against human good. I believe , along with several post-Kantian rationalist ethical thinkers, that basic moral principles must be universal, that is, applicable to all human beings per se. Nielsen, Bair and others have rightly asserted that fundamental moral principles must be 1. universalizable, 2. reversible and 3 for the good of all men. Reversibility means that whatever treatment a man gives to another, he should agree that the other has the same right to treat him in a similar manner. This simply emphasizes the inherent equality of all human beings.
Several ethicists remind us of Hume’s argument that ‘aught’ can not be derived from ‘is’. But Hume himself talked of human sympathy that brings us beyond our petty selves and near all other human beings. While all immoral acts are inspired by our self-centredness, sympathy or sympathetic imagination brings all men closer together. The awareness of the other person’s needs and responses to life situations makes us more humane and moral. Nagel argues for the need of self-transcendence which frees us from the bondage of our ego, makes us conscious of the needs of others, and would motivate us to treat others at an equal level and even help them in time of their need. We should also not forget Kant’s assertion of dignity of man by virtue of both his rationality and humanity. Those who ask why they should be moral and sacrifice their self interests, should be answered that they are human beings and by choosing an immoral way of life, they would destroy their very humanity.

Research paper thumbnail of A SEARCH FOR FOUNDATIONAL MORAL PRINCIPLES AND THEIR JUSTIFICATION

Book: Why be Moral: A Search for a final Justification of Morality, 1997

There are immense differences among human beings-cultural, religious, linguistic and even moral. ... more There are immense differences among human beings-cultural, religious, linguistic and even moral. But differences being more striking we recognize them more easily than the similarities in human nature, their basic needs and responses to life situations. While cultural-ethical relativists stress the former, a large number of thinkers from Hume, Sidgwick and Kant to modern Kantian rationalists, as Baier, Taylor, Stace, Nielsen and Nagel, recognize and stress the affinity between man and man, and their right to perfect equality of treatment. They also affirm that there has to be a core universal morality that both applies to and aims at the good of all human beings alike. This universal morality does not deny the existence of different cultures and their moralities, but claims supremacy for itself in case of any conflict between the two. Like different moralities, there are various moral theories which argue for different sources, content and criteria for judging moral assertions, such as approval theories, both subjective and social (moral code), intuition theories and rationalist theories. This paper discusses them, and finds the rationalist theories much more reasonable and comprehensive. It also argues that a dialogue between various ethicists with an objective, person-neutral approach can make us recognize both the positive points of different theories, as also that they, with a few exceptions, share many a common moral principles and values. Once this is realized we can arrive at a basic minimal morality shared by all cultures and their moralities. The moral rules of any, especially universal morality, need, in turn, to be justified, and for that we have to presuppose second order moral principles which, according to Hare, Baier and other ethicists cannot be further justified. There is some talk of personal decision, with which I do not agree. In the second section of this paper, I have tried to search and enumerate some universal moral principles and virtues which are, with the exception of a few, are acknowledged by different cultures and thinkers, such as-i. Universality-cum reversibility; ii Basic equality and interdependence of all human beings. This implies seeing others not as an 'other' but as oneself or at least akin to oneself. iii. Justice based on equality. iv. Ahimsa or not hurting others. v. Benevolence or kindness. vi. Self-transcendence or unselfishness. vii. Truthfulness, moral integrity and self-discipline, and viii, Mutual toleration. This is neither an exhaustive list, nor is it compulsory. However, I feel that 'looking at others as like oneself', which is another form of the Golden rule is in some way the most important or foundational virtue.

Research paper thumbnail of Ram Katha and Ram Bhakti Then and Now

Secular Perspective

The story of Ram and later the acknowledgment of Ram as an incarnation of Vishnu was quite old; b... more The story of Ram and later the acknowledgment of Ram as an incarnation of Vishnu was quite old; but somehow the practice of bhakti to Him started quite late with Ramanand (13 th cent.), a follower of Ramanuja (12 th cent.) tradition. All through Krishna was the favoured Deity of the practitioners of bhakti. Tulsidas made Ram bhakti popular. Tulsi's presentation of Ram as both a Maryada-purushottam (epitome of peace and self-restraint) and of compassion is the most ennobling concept of a Deity. Ram in popular religion is both the Ram of Ayodhya , as also a simple name for the Supreme Divine. Therefore the present day assertion that Ram is the only God, when He is understood as the Ram born in a particular spot falsifies the original tenet which declares that the Truth (Sat) is one though the sages call it by many names. Moreover, the Ram of Ayodhya has now been conceived in two ways-as a warrior with an angry expression and bow drawn to destroy; and as Ram Lalla (child Ram). The article argues how both pictures of Ram are against the traditional , popular idea of Ram. As to bhakti of Ram, there is no indication of it, as Ram is being used for political interests, and bhakti means total rejection of the ego and its interests.

Research paper thumbnail of SUFISM: A "MYSTIC0-RELIGIOUS" ASPECT OF ISLAM: ITS IMPACT ON INDIA'S RELIGIO-SOCIAL CULTURE

History of Science, Philosophy and Culture lm Indian Civilization,, Vol. 7, Part 5 , 2009

Sufism is a somewhat heterodox tradition of Islam which has gradually become an integral part of ... more Sufism is a somewhat heterodox tradition of Islam which has gradually become an integral part of popular Islam. It has certain elements, like emphasis on the love of God as the all-in-all, need for transcending one's ego, which brings it closer to mystical aspects of other world religions. As such, it has a universal appeal, and also affirms religious tolerance, generally not found in Semitic religions. In India, Sufi saints were instrumental to the development of a culture of mutual sharing and harmony.

Research paper thumbnail of Function of the Category of ‘Community’ in Secular Socio-political Discourse in India

We have two concepts in our title- ‘secular’ and ‘community’. I will first discuss briefly the c... more We have two concepts in our title- ‘secular’ and ‘community’. I will first discuss briefly the conceptions of ‘secular’ and ‘secularism’, both in the West and in India; and then try to analyze the category of ‘community’ which is my basic concern in this article. It is my central argument that the thrust of modern Indian thought and practice at the socio-political level has generally been towards the strengthening of communal, that is, religious identities. Indians are increasingly perceiving themselves as Hindus, Muslims, Christians, or Sikhs, and less and less as Indians. Most socio-political discourse in India is undertaken on the basis of the ubiquitous category of religious ‘community’. The term ‘community’ is equally used for various castes. It is my contention that the manner in which caste identity is being asserted in both social practice and political discourse makes the caste exactly identical with that of religious community. Both are heterogeneous and are being used as bases for demanding privileges for one’s group, and result in socio-political conflict. If we realize first, that intra-community differences are as significant as inter-community ones; and second, that each individual has several equally relevant identities, and exclusive emphasis on any one identity both obstructs the development of the individual and creates basis for conflict between different groups, then we would find that these different identities can form bridges between different groups, mistakenly called communities, paving the way for a common national identity.