Simon Constantine - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Simon Constantine

135, Dec 5, 2017

War and Breaking Point In the Summer of 1917, not long after the United States entered the war, t... more War and Breaking Point In the Summer of 1917, not long after the United States entered the war, the former American ambassador to Germany, James Gerard would write the following words. The German nation is not one which makes revolutions. There will be scattered riots in Germany, but no simultaneous rising of the whole people. The officers of the army are all of one class, and of a class devoted to the ideals of autocracy. A revolution of the army is impossible; and at home there are only the boys and old men easily kept in subjection by the police. There is a far greater danger of the starvation of our allies than of the starvation of the Germans. Every available inch of ground in Germany is cultivated, and cultivated by the aid of the old men, the boys and the women, and of the two million prisoners of war. 1

History of Retailing and Consumption, 2020

ABSTRACT This article examines the role that a discriminatory application of the German Trade Cod... more ABSTRACT This article examines the role that a discriminatory application of the German Trade Code (Gewerbeordnung) played in the ‘Gypsy’ policy of the German Second Empire. It argues that the Code became central to the legalistic and bureaucratic form that their persecution assumed in this period, serving to criminalise the itinerant lifestyle of the Sinti and Roma and contributing greatly to their social and economic marginalisation.

Resumen: Existen en la práctica dos elementos fundamentales que son utilizados en casos extremos ... more Resumen: Existen en la práctica dos elementos fundamentales que son utilizados en casos extremos para limitar las sobrepresiones que ocurren en la tubería de una pequeña central hidroeléctrica (PCH) ante un rechazo total de carga, son los denominados chimenea de equilibrio y válvula de alivio. En trabajos anteriores se ha presentado el modelado y simulación de centrales hidroeléctricas con la metodología de Bond Graphs, pero sin estos componentes. En este artículo se discute el agregado de los mismos al modelo básico de una PCH. En la metodología de Bond Graphs los componentes son modelados utilizando analogías eléctricas, particularmente la chimenea de equilibrio puede considerarse análoga a un capacitor y la válvula de alivio análoga a una resistencia no lineal y dependiente del tiempo con su dinámica asociada a la respuesta del sistema de regulación de velocidad. Los resultados del modelado y la simulación de un rechazo total de carga fueron validados

Sinti and Roma in Germany (1871–1933), 2020

Sinti and Roma in Germany (1871–1933), 2020

Sinti and Roma in Germany (1871–1933), 2020

Contents: Introduction The estate village population Keeping workers working: management and resi... more Contents: Introduction The estate village population Keeping workers working: management and resident labour Mismanagement and labour protest Worker-peasants and urban recruits: labour mobility between the village and the city Polish seasonal workers Conclusion Bibliography Index.

Sinti and Roma in Germany (1871–1933), 2020

This study examines the relationship between the acoustic properties of female faculty members' v... more This study examines the relationship between the acoustic properties of female faculty members' voices and the perception of the female faculty members age and personality characteristics by undergraduate students. A standardized acoustic analysis using the Multidimensional Voice Program (MDVP) and the RealPitch program was performed to determine the participating faculty members' fundamental frequency (habitual and conversation), vocal jitter, and vocal shimmer. Faculty members were then recorded reading a brief preselected passage. Student participants listened to the recorded audio samples and completed a survey regarding the faculty members' ages and personality characteristics. A Pearson product-moment correlation (Pearson r) analysis completed in SPSStatistics v. 22.0 found statistically significant correlations between the fundamental frequency of faculty members' voices and students' evaluations of the faculty members' age, authoritativeness, approachability, attractiveness, competency, and fluency.

Journal of War & Culture Studies, 2013

Abstract This paper discusses the significance of phrasebooks produced for soldiers who fought in... more Abstract This paper discusses the significance of phrasebooks produced for soldiers who fought in the Great War. With particular reference to texts published in Germany, it argues that their historical importance lies in the manner in which they helped to transmit to soldiers expected norms of conduct for the engagement with civilian populations; that for German soldiers, the scenarios and dialogue of phrasebooks functioned as a kind of virtual-training, promoting the use of illegal methods of warfare in occupied Belgium and France.

International Journal of African Historical Studies, 2013

Talking to NativesIn the late nineteenth- and early-twentieth-centuries phrasebooks and primers f... more Talking to NativesIn the late nineteenth- and early-twentieth-centuries phrasebooks and primers for numerous indigenous languages were published to assist European colonists in their dealings with colonial subjects. Most were compiled by missionaries, by men in the colonial civil service, the military, or by linguists with experience of the colonies. To date historians have paid relatively little attention to these texts. This paper argues that the phrases and dialogues the phrasebooks contain can provide valuable insights into daily relations in the colonies and improve our understanding of the ways in which prospective colonists may have internalized expected modes of speech and behavior towards subject populations. Here I follow Rachel Gilmour's assertion that language-learning material like this was both reflective and constitutive of social reality as it "lay out parameters for what constituted appropriate communication between colonizing and colonized people." I also follow Diana Jeater's emphasis on its role in the transmission of the colonial world-view to new arrivals in the colonies because it helped "prescribe what it is possible to think, and what it is possible to say, about Africans." The main focus of this paper is those books published for the German colonies in Africa: German South-West Africa, Cameroon, Togo, and German East-Africa. This said, examples are drawn from material produced for other territories in order to illustrate that the mindset they reveal, and the violent nature of much of the instruction, was a shared, European phenomenon.1These texts had the broad aim of facilitating communication between European colonists and native African subjects. Usually, as Fabian has illustrated, "communication" was viewed in crude, instrumental terms. In most cases, the point was to help colonists "express wishes and orders."2 For some, doing this through the medium of native languages was viewed as a short-term necessity, to be dispensed with once the colonial administration had been able to inculcate the language of the ruling power.3 Others saw the acquisition of native languages as part of a long-term strategy, crucial to both the commercial exploitation of Africa and the conversion of colonial subjects to Christianity;4 some because they believed the majority of "primitive" Africans could never leam "advanced" European languages,5 others, as in Cameroon, because they were afraid that if the mass of colonial subjects acquired German, they might overcome the linguistic differences that divided them, and unite in struggle against colonial rule. Efforts to "Germanize" subject populations in Cameroon diminished in the early 1900s, and greater efforts were made to equip colonial officials and soldiers with native languages.6Colonial administrations usually prioritized those languages that already had reach and purchase. For the British and Germans in East Africa, Kiswahili was the obvious choice, since it was already firmly embedded as a language of trade and widely spoken. Consequently, many phrasebooks produced for this colony were for Kiswahili.7 Elsewhere things were more problematic. In German Cameroon and Togo, for instance, there was no obvious single candidate for an official language. On Cameroon's coast West African Pidgin English was the usual means of communication between Africans and Europeans, but neither the administration nor Germany's scholars were willing to adopt a language they regarded as mongrel, and an outgrowth of that spoken by its major imperial rival.8 Interestingly, their rejection of Pidgin provided some of the impetus for promoting other languages spoken in the region; phrasebooks and primers appeared for Duala (widely spoken on the coast, and in the center of the colony), for the commercial languages Hausa and Kanuri, for Fulani, which it was felt officials and soldiers in the north should learn, and for Ewondo, spoken in the southeast. 9 In Togo, in addition to the books on Hausa, material appeared for Ewe, the dominant language in the south of the territory, and for Twi and Tern. …

Annual Bulletin of Historical Literature, 2010

, is a timely discussion of the opportunities and challenges presented by new technologies. It si... more , is a timely discussion of the opportunities and challenges presented by new technologies. It signals the journal's intention to act as a forum for digital research. Matt Rubery's article considers how digital audio books can be used to rethink the experience of reading in the Victorian age and in our own, whilst Jerome McGann, Richard Pearson, James Mussell, and Julie Thomas take part in a thoughtprovoking roundtable discussion on the potential of digital archives. The second special issue, 'Victorian Afterlives', considers the legacy of the Victorian period (J. of Victorian Culture, 13:2, (2008), pp. 200-222). Tracy Hargreaves examines literary and filmic representations of the Victorians in order to consider recurrences of thought that bind the present-day mindset to that of the nineteenth century. Carol T. Christ assesses the resonance of Victorian educational debates in recent arguments about the future of universities. Peter D. McDonald looks at the long life of Victorian disputes about censorship into the twentieth century. Sharon Aronofsky Weltman adds a theatre historian's perspective by analysing recent 'stagings' of Victorian culture. 'Victorian afterlives' is a theme that also emerges in Cora Kaplan, 'Fingersmith's Coda: Feminism and Victorian Studies' (JVC, 12), which uses the work of Sarah Waters to explore the political and critical genealogy of pastiche Victoriana, and examines modern feminism's enduring relationship with postwar Victorian studies. 2008 also sees the foundation of Neo-Victorian Studies, with a special issue on ' "Swing Your Razor Wide. . .": Sweeney Todd and Other (Neo)Victorian Criminalities'. Economic and Labour history Martin Daunton, State and Market in Victorian Britain: War, Welfare and Capitalism is a collection of twelve previously published essays that consider (i) the fiscal character of the Victorian state, (ii) the relationship between the state and the City and (iii) the state and philanthropy (Boydell and Brewer, £55). The development of an international market for wheat is explored in Mette Ejanaes, Karl Gunnar Persson and Søren Rich, 'Feeding the British: convergence and market efficiency in the nineteenth-century grain trade' (Econ. Hist. R. 61). Francesco Cinnirella, 'Optimists or pessimists? A reconsideration of nutritional status in Britain, 1740-1865' (Eur. R. of Econ. Hist., 12), revises previous estimates on average nutritional status to argue that this declined substantially. It is argued that enclosures and the decline of the cottage industry partially explain this fall. Bernard Harris, 'Gender, health, and welfare in England and Wales since industrialisation' (Res. in Econ. Hist., 26), reexamines historiography on sex-specific differences in height, weight and mortality in England and Wales before 1850 and uses two electronic datasets to examine changes in cause-specific mortality rates between 1851 and 1995. Moving to Ireland, Charles R. Hickson and John D. Turner, 'Preand post-famine indices of Irish equity prices' (Eur. R. of Econ. His., 12), uses data obtained from stockbroker lists to estimate market capitalisation and construct weighted and unweighted monthly stock markets to demonstrate that the market for company stock appears to have been relatively unaffected by the Famine.

War in History, 2011

This article explores the different ways in which soldiers in the First World War communicated wi... more This article explores the different ways in which soldiers in the First World War communicated with the enemy. Drawing, in particular, on accounts of capture and captivity recorded in interview with escaped and exchanged British prisoners of war, it argues that language was central to these experiences, and that a soldier’s ability to understand, and make himself understood, was often pivotal to the question of whether he survived or perished.

Immigrants & Minorities, 2013

This article identifies the mechanisms by which governments in the Saxon region sought to eradica... more This article identifies the mechanisms by which governments in the Saxon region sought to eradicate the lifestyle of travellers they labelled ‘Gypsies’ (Zigeuner). It argues that much of this policy rested on legislation that was already in place to regulate the itinerant poor, including both the restrictions governing itinerant trade and begging and vagrancy laws, but that the precise pattern of implementation for ‘Gypsies’ was nonetheless distinct. Special treatment was also apparent in the system of police escort that emerged, and in police efforts to gather and share the personal data of targets. Surviving Gendarmerie reports indicate that the implementation of policy was adversely affected by limited police resources, negligent officials, the willingness of individuals to continue to trade with travellers and, not least, the responses of travellers themselves. Nevertheless, they also make it clear that it became more and more difficult for travelling groups to sustain an itinerant lifestyle.

German History, 2006

Over the course of the Empire demand for labour in the countryside and penal reform together crea... more Over the course of the Empire demand for labour in the countryside and penal reform together created the conditions for a greater deployment of inmates outside of Germany's penal institutions, and numerous prisons and penitentiaries began leasing convicts to both public and private landowners. Agricultural labour was even more characteristic of Germany's youth reformatories and its major workhouses, both of which leased detainees and farmed land on site. This rural accent to state correction was complemented by two initiatives from the charitable sector: the emergence of a network of workers' farming colonies across Germany, and prisoner release programmes which channelled ex-offenders towards employment in the countryside. In examining these different developments this article seeks to throw more light on the nature of punishment in this period, and also to provide new insight into rural social and economic relations. The first section outlines the scale of farming and leasing within the correctional system. Following this the strategies of rehabilitation and the financial pressures on institutions to prioritize agricultural labour are discussed in greater detail. The final sections consider the inability of correctional régimes to reform individuals, and the responses this elicited; in particular the call for longer sentences, and the willingness of some psychiatrists to reclassify certain repeat offenders as mental patients. In this context, the article draws attention to the similarities between the correctional régimes at the workhouses, and the method of cure adopted at some asylums. 1 1 We still know relatively little about the social history of imprisonment during the Empire (Richard Evans, Tales from the German Underworld, New Haven and London, 1998), p. 2. Research has focused upon the early modern period, or early nineteenth century, and on Nazi Germany, though here too work on the penal system has only begun recently (Cf. Nikolaus Wachsmann,

European History Quarterly, 2010

Labor History, 2006

... Correspondence to: Simon Constantine, School of Humanities, Languages and Social Sciences, Un... more ... Correspondence to: Simon Constantine, School of Humanities, Languages and Social Sciences, University of Wolverhampton, Millennium City Building, Wulfrun ... Ignaz Sobczak, for example, left Lindenberg to attend the wedding of another Pole on a neighbouring estate, and ...

135, Dec 5, 2017

War and Breaking Point In the Summer of 1917, not long after the United States entered the war, t... more War and Breaking Point In the Summer of 1917, not long after the United States entered the war, the former American ambassador to Germany, James Gerard would write the following words. The German nation is not one which makes revolutions. There will be scattered riots in Germany, but no simultaneous rising of the whole people. The officers of the army are all of one class, and of a class devoted to the ideals of autocracy. A revolution of the army is impossible; and at home there are only the boys and old men easily kept in subjection by the police. There is a far greater danger of the starvation of our allies than of the starvation of the Germans. Every available inch of ground in Germany is cultivated, and cultivated by the aid of the old men, the boys and the women, and of the two million prisoners of war. 1

History of Retailing and Consumption, 2020

ABSTRACT This article examines the role that a discriminatory application of the German Trade Cod... more ABSTRACT This article examines the role that a discriminatory application of the German Trade Code (Gewerbeordnung) played in the ‘Gypsy’ policy of the German Second Empire. It argues that the Code became central to the legalistic and bureaucratic form that their persecution assumed in this period, serving to criminalise the itinerant lifestyle of the Sinti and Roma and contributing greatly to their social and economic marginalisation.

Resumen: Existen en la práctica dos elementos fundamentales que son utilizados en casos extremos ... more Resumen: Existen en la práctica dos elementos fundamentales que son utilizados en casos extremos para limitar las sobrepresiones que ocurren en la tubería de una pequeña central hidroeléctrica (PCH) ante un rechazo total de carga, son los denominados chimenea de equilibrio y válvula de alivio. En trabajos anteriores se ha presentado el modelado y simulación de centrales hidroeléctricas con la metodología de Bond Graphs, pero sin estos componentes. En este artículo se discute el agregado de los mismos al modelo básico de una PCH. En la metodología de Bond Graphs los componentes son modelados utilizando analogías eléctricas, particularmente la chimenea de equilibrio puede considerarse análoga a un capacitor y la válvula de alivio análoga a una resistencia no lineal y dependiente del tiempo con su dinámica asociada a la respuesta del sistema de regulación de velocidad. Los resultados del modelado y la simulación de un rechazo total de carga fueron validados

Sinti and Roma in Germany (1871–1933), 2020

Sinti and Roma in Germany (1871–1933), 2020

Sinti and Roma in Germany (1871–1933), 2020

Contents: Introduction The estate village population Keeping workers working: management and resi... more Contents: Introduction The estate village population Keeping workers working: management and resident labour Mismanagement and labour protest Worker-peasants and urban recruits: labour mobility between the village and the city Polish seasonal workers Conclusion Bibliography Index.

Sinti and Roma in Germany (1871–1933), 2020

This study examines the relationship between the acoustic properties of female faculty members' v... more This study examines the relationship between the acoustic properties of female faculty members' voices and the perception of the female faculty members age and personality characteristics by undergraduate students. A standardized acoustic analysis using the Multidimensional Voice Program (MDVP) and the RealPitch program was performed to determine the participating faculty members' fundamental frequency (habitual and conversation), vocal jitter, and vocal shimmer. Faculty members were then recorded reading a brief preselected passage. Student participants listened to the recorded audio samples and completed a survey regarding the faculty members' ages and personality characteristics. A Pearson product-moment correlation (Pearson r) analysis completed in SPSStatistics v. 22.0 found statistically significant correlations between the fundamental frequency of faculty members' voices and students' evaluations of the faculty members' age, authoritativeness, approachability, attractiveness, competency, and fluency.

Journal of War & Culture Studies, 2013

Abstract This paper discusses the significance of phrasebooks produced for soldiers who fought in... more Abstract This paper discusses the significance of phrasebooks produced for soldiers who fought in the Great War. With particular reference to texts published in Germany, it argues that their historical importance lies in the manner in which they helped to transmit to soldiers expected norms of conduct for the engagement with civilian populations; that for German soldiers, the scenarios and dialogue of phrasebooks functioned as a kind of virtual-training, promoting the use of illegal methods of warfare in occupied Belgium and France.

International Journal of African Historical Studies, 2013

Talking to NativesIn the late nineteenth- and early-twentieth-centuries phrasebooks and primers f... more Talking to NativesIn the late nineteenth- and early-twentieth-centuries phrasebooks and primers for numerous indigenous languages were published to assist European colonists in their dealings with colonial subjects. Most were compiled by missionaries, by men in the colonial civil service, the military, or by linguists with experience of the colonies. To date historians have paid relatively little attention to these texts. This paper argues that the phrases and dialogues the phrasebooks contain can provide valuable insights into daily relations in the colonies and improve our understanding of the ways in which prospective colonists may have internalized expected modes of speech and behavior towards subject populations. Here I follow Rachel Gilmour's assertion that language-learning material like this was both reflective and constitutive of social reality as it "lay out parameters for what constituted appropriate communication between colonizing and colonized people." I also follow Diana Jeater's emphasis on its role in the transmission of the colonial world-view to new arrivals in the colonies because it helped "prescribe what it is possible to think, and what it is possible to say, about Africans." The main focus of this paper is those books published for the German colonies in Africa: German South-West Africa, Cameroon, Togo, and German East-Africa. This said, examples are drawn from material produced for other territories in order to illustrate that the mindset they reveal, and the violent nature of much of the instruction, was a shared, European phenomenon.1These texts had the broad aim of facilitating communication between European colonists and native African subjects. Usually, as Fabian has illustrated, "communication" was viewed in crude, instrumental terms. In most cases, the point was to help colonists "express wishes and orders."2 For some, doing this through the medium of native languages was viewed as a short-term necessity, to be dispensed with once the colonial administration had been able to inculcate the language of the ruling power.3 Others saw the acquisition of native languages as part of a long-term strategy, crucial to both the commercial exploitation of Africa and the conversion of colonial subjects to Christianity;4 some because they believed the majority of "primitive" Africans could never leam "advanced" European languages,5 others, as in Cameroon, because they were afraid that if the mass of colonial subjects acquired German, they might overcome the linguistic differences that divided them, and unite in struggle against colonial rule. Efforts to "Germanize" subject populations in Cameroon diminished in the early 1900s, and greater efforts were made to equip colonial officials and soldiers with native languages.6Colonial administrations usually prioritized those languages that already had reach and purchase. For the British and Germans in East Africa, Kiswahili was the obvious choice, since it was already firmly embedded as a language of trade and widely spoken. Consequently, many phrasebooks produced for this colony were for Kiswahili.7 Elsewhere things were more problematic. In German Cameroon and Togo, for instance, there was no obvious single candidate for an official language. On Cameroon's coast West African Pidgin English was the usual means of communication between Africans and Europeans, but neither the administration nor Germany's scholars were willing to adopt a language they regarded as mongrel, and an outgrowth of that spoken by its major imperial rival.8 Interestingly, their rejection of Pidgin provided some of the impetus for promoting other languages spoken in the region; phrasebooks and primers appeared for Duala (widely spoken on the coast, and in the center of the colony), for the commercial languages Hausa and Kanuri, for Fulani, which it was felt officials and soldiers in the north should learn, and for Ewondo, spoken in the southeast. 9 In Togo, in addition to the books on Hausa, material appeared for Ewe, the dominant language in the south of the territory, and for Twi and Tern. …

Annual Bulletin of Historical Literature, 2010

, is a timely discussion of the opportunities and challenges presented by new technologies. It si... more , is a timely discussion of the opportunities and challenges presented by new technologies. It signals the journal's intention to act as a forum for digital research. Matt Rubery's article considers how digital audio books can be used to rethink the experience of reading in the Victorian age and in our own, whilst Jerome McGann, Richard Pearson, James Mussell, and Julie Thomas take part in a thoughtprovoking roundtable discussion on the potential of digital archives. The second special issue, 'Victorian Afterlives', considers the legacy of the Victorian period (J. of Victorian Culture, 13:2, (2008), pp. 200-222). Tracy Hargreaves examines literary and filmic representations of the Victorians in order to consider recurrences of thought that bind the present-day mindset to that of the nineteenth century. Carol T. Christ assesses the resonance of Victorian educational debates in recent arguments about the future of universities. Peter D. McDonald looks at the long life of Victorian disputes about censorship into the twentieth century. Sharon Aronofsky Weltman adds a theatre historian's perspective by analysing recent 'stagings' of Victorian culture. 'Victorian afterlives' is a theme that also emerges in Cora Kaplan, 'Fingersmith's Coda: Feminism and Victorian Studies' (JVC, 12), which uses the work of Sarah Waters to explore the political and critical genealogy of pastiche Victoriana, and examines modern feminism's enduring relationship with postwar Victorian studies. 2008 also sees the foundation of Neo-Victorian Studies, with a special issue on ' "Swing Your Razor Wide. . .": Sweeney Todd and Other (Neo)Victorian Criminalities'. Economic and Labour history Martin Daunton, State and Market in Victorian Britain: War, Welfare and Capitalism is a collection of twelve previously published essays that consider (i) the fiscal character of the Victorian state, (ii) the relationship between the state and the City and (iii) the state and philanthropy (Boydell and Brewer, £55). The development of an international market for wheat is explored in Mette Ejanaes, Karl Gunnar Persson and Søren Rich, 'Feeding the British: convergence and market efficiency in the nineteenth-century grain trade' (Econ. Hist. R. 61). Francesco Cinnirella, 'Optimists or pessimists? A reconsideration of nutritional status in Britain, 1740-1865' (Eur. R. of Econ. Hist., 12), revises previous estimates on average nutritional status to argue that this declined substantially. It is argued that enclosures and the decline of the cottage industry partially explain this fall. Bernard Harris, 'Gender, health, and welfare in England and Wales since industrialisation' (Res. in Econ. Hist., 26), reexamines historiography on sex-specific differences in height, weight and mortality in England and Wales before 1850 and uses two electronic datasets to examine changes in cause-specific mortality rates between 1851 and 1995. Moving to Ireland, Charles R. Hickson and John D. Turner, 'Preand post-famine indices of Irish equity prices' (Eur. R. of Econ. His., 12), uses data obtained from stockbroker lists to estimate market capitalisation and construct weighted and unweighted monthly stock markets to demonstrate that the market for company stock appears to have been relatively unaffected by the Famine.

War in History, 2011

This article explores the different ways in which soldiers in the First World War communicated wi... more This article explores the different ways in which soldiers in the First World War communicated with the enemy. Drawing, in particular, on accounts of capture and captivity recorded in interview with escaped and exchanged British prisoners of war, it argues that language was central to these experiences, and that a soldier’s ability to understand, and make himself understood, was often pivotal to the question of whether he survived or perished.

Immigrants & Minorities, 2013

This article identifies the mechanisms by which governments in the Saxon region sought to eradica... more This article identifies the mechanisms by which governments in the Saxon region sought to eradicate the lifestyle of travellers they labelled ‘Gypsies’ (Zigeuner). It argues that much of this policy rested on legislation that was already in place to regulate the itinerant poor, including both the restrictions governing itinerant trade and begging and vagrancy laws, but that the precise pattern of implementation for ‘Gypsies’ was nonetheless distinct. Special treatment was also apparent in the system of police escort that emerged, and in police efforts to gather and share the personal data of targets. Surviving Gendarmerie reports indicate that the implementation of policy was adversely affected by limited police resources, negligent officials, the willingness of individuals to continue to trade with travellers and, not least, the responses of travellers themselves. Nevertheless, they also make it clear that it became more and more difficult for travelling groups to sustain an itinerant lifestyle.

German History, 2006

Over the course of the Empire demand for labour in the countryside and penal reform together crea... more Over the course of the Empire demand for labour in the countryside and penal reform together created the conditions for a greater deployment of inmates outside of Germany's penal institutions, and numerous prisons and penitentiaries began leasing convicts to both public and private landowners. Agricultural labour was even more characteristic of Germany's youth reformatories and its major workhouses, both of which leased detainees and farmed land on site. This rural accent to state correction was complemented by two initiatives from the charitable sector: the emergence of a network of workers' farming colonies across Germany, and prisoner release programmes which channelled ex-offenders towards employment in the countryside. In examining these different developments this article seeks to throw more light on the nature of punishment in this period, and also to provide new insight into rural social and economic relations. The first section outlines the scale of farming and leasing within the correctional system. Following this the strategies of rehabilitation and the financial pressures on institutions to prioritize agricultural labour are discussed in greater detail. The final sections consider the inability of correctional régimes to reform individuals, and the responses this elicited; in particular the call for longer sentences, and the willingness of some psychiatrists to reclassify certain repeat offenders as mental patients. In this context, the article draws attention to the similarities between the correctional régimes at the workhouses, and the method of cure adopted at some asylums. 1 1 We still know relatively little about the social history of imprisonment during the Empire (Richard Evans, Tales from the German Underworld, New Haven and London, 1998), p. 2. Research has focused upon the early modern period, or early nineteenth century, and on Nazi Germany, though here too work on the penal system has only begun recently (Cf. Nikolaus Wachsmann,

European History Quarterly, 2010

Labor History, 2006

... Correspondence to: Simon Constantine, School of Humanities, Languages and Social Sciences, Un... more ... Correspondence to: Simon Constantine, School of Humanities, Languages and Social Sciences, University of Wolverhampton, Millennium City Building, Wulfrun ... Ignaz Sobczak, for example, left Lindenberg to attend the wedding of another Pole on a neighbouring estate, and ...