Summer Brandt - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Summer Brandt

Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting

Humans are frequently left to “backstop” automated systems, and Human Factors specialists have ar... more Humans are frequently left to “backstop” automated systems, and Human Factors specialists have argued against this for decades with, at best, partial success. What if we took a different tack… and designed to support it? The participants were involved in a recent effort to review and document cases across multiple domains where operators acted as a “failsafe” for automation, intervening in unanticipated situations to maximize success and minimize damage. We defined a “Human As Failsafe” (HAF) incident and then investigated conditions and practices making HAF success more or less likely. Analyzing these historical incidents, we suggested remediation approaches. The project also examined the legal concept of culpability (i.e., when intervention should have happened but didn’t) and proposed a state-machine-based analytic simulation to identify when HAF interventions are plausible. The panel objective will be to briefly present these concepts, but more generally to discuss designing for...

Advances in Neuroergonomics and Cognitive Engineering, 2021

The education and training module (ETM) in alertness management has now been integrated as part o... more The education and training module (ETM) in alertness management has now been integrated as part of the training regimen of the Pilot Proficiency Awards Program ("WINGS") of the Federal Aviation Administration. Originated and now maintained current by the Fatigue Countermeasures Group at NASA Ames Research Center, the ETM in Alertness Management is designed to give pilots the benefit of the best and most recent research on the basics of sleep physiology, the causes of fatigue, and strategies for managing alertness during flight operations. The WINGS program is an incentive program that encourages pilots at all licensing levels to participate in recurrent training, upon completion of which distinctive lapel or tie pins (wings) and certificates of completion are awarded. In addition to flight training, all WINGS applicants must attend at least one FAA-sponsored safety seminar, FAA-sanctioned safety seminar, or industry recurrent training program. The Fatigue Countermeasures G...

Advances in Neuroergonomics and Cognitive Engineering, 2017

Automation has entered nearly every aspect of our lives, but it often remains hard to understand.... more Automation has entered nearly every aspect of our lives, but it often remains hard to understand. Why is this? Automation is often brittle, requiring constant human oversight to assure it operates as intended. This oversight has become harder as automation has become more complicated. To resolve this problem, Human-Autonomy Teaming (HAT) has been proposed. HAT is based on advances in providing automation transparency, a method for giving insight into the reasoning behind automated recommendations and actions, along with advances in human automation communications (e.g., voice). These, in turn, permit more trust in the automation when appropriate, and less when not, allowing a more targeted supervision of automated functions. This paper proposes a framework for HAT, incorporating three key tenets: transparency, bi-directional communication, and operator directed authority. These tenets, along with more capable automation, represent a shift in human-automation relations.

The International Journal of Sleep and Wakefulness-Primary Care is designed to bring a critical a... more The International Journal of Sleep and Wakefulness-Primary Care is designed to bring a critical analysis of the world literature on sleep disorders, written by clinicians, for clinicians, to an international, multidisciplinary audience. Our mission is to promote better understanding of the treatment of sleep disorders across the global healthcare system by providing an active forum or the discussion of clinical and healthcare issues. Leading Articles-These major review articles are chosen to reflect topical clinical and healthcare issues in sleep disorders. All contributions undergo a strict editorial review process. Foundations in Sleep/In Focus-These articles are designed to educate primary care physicians in the basic principles shaping modern sleep medicine. Clinical Reviews-The most important papers from the best of the international literature on sleep disorders are systematically selected by an internationally recognized panel of experts. The Editors then prepare concise and critical analyses of each paper, and, most importantly, place the findings into clinical context. Meeting Reports-The International Journal of Sleep and Wakefulness-Primary Care also provides incisive reportage from the most important international congresses.

Value in Health, 2007

first clinically isolated event (CIS), with a high probability of progressing to clinical definit... more first clinically isolated event (CIS), with a high probability of progressing to clinical definite multiple sclerosis (CDMS). We evaluated the long-term cost-effectiveness of treating CIS patients with interferon-b-1b (IFNB-1b) to delay conversion to CDMS and subsequent disease progression. METHODS: A Markov model was developed to estimate the cost-effectiveness of IFNB-1b compared to no treatment based on a double blind 2-year trial (BENEFIT). Data from the MS registries in Stockholm (Sweden) and in Lyon (France) were used to populate the model in addition to efficacy data from the clinical trial. Patients converting to CDMS are eligible for any of the licensed disease-modifying drugs (DMD) and disease progression under active treatment is estimated using the treated patients in the Stockholm MS Registry. Patients withdrawing from treatment during or after the trial follow the disease progression of patients not on DMDs in the Lyon MS registry (EDMUS). Disease development is expressed as moving from CIS to mild, moderate and severe disability. Costs and utilities are assigned to patients based on observational data from the Stockholm area. Results are presented as cost per quality-adjusted lifeyears (QALYs) gained, from the societal perspective, in 2006 €. RESULTS: Including all patients, the cost per QALY gained with IFNB-1b is 33,185 € over 20 years. For patients with a mono-focal CIS, prevention with IFNB-1b dominates no treatment, with cost-savings of 13,338 € for a QALY gain of 0.29 (both discounted with 3%). Results are sensitive to the time horizon, the treatment duration and proportion of patients treated at conversion, and the perspective of the analysis. CONCLUSION: Within the framework of this analysis in Sweden, around 35% of estimates are cost-saving and more than half of cost-effectiveness ratios remain below a threshold of 50,000 € under most assumptions.

Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 2010

To assess the impact of sleep disturbances on work performance/ productivity. Methods: Employees ... more To assess the impact of sleep disturbances on work performance/ productivity. Methods: Employees (N ϭ 4188) at four US corporations were surveyed about sleep patterns and completed the Work Limitations Questionnaire. Respondents were classified into four categories: insomnia, insufficient sleep syndrome, at-risk, and good sleep. Employer costs related to productivity changes were estimated through the Work Limitations Questionnaire. Performance/productivity, safety, and treatment measures were compared using a one-way analysis of variance model. Results: Compared with at-risk and good-sleep groups, insomnia and insufficient sleep syndrome groups had significantly worse productivity, performance, and safety outcomes. The insomnia group had the highest rate of sleep medication use. The other groups were more likely to use nonmedication treatments. Fatigue-related productivity losses were estimated to cost $1967/employee annually. Conclusions: Sleep disturbances contribute to decreased employee productivity at a high cost to employers.

AIAA Aviation 2019 Forum, 2019

2017 IEEE/AIAA 36th Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC), 2017

Within human factors there is burgeoning interest in the "human-autonomy teaming" (HAT) concept a... more Within human factors there is burgeoning interest in the "human-autonomy teaming" (HAT) concept as a way to address the challenges of interacting with complex, increasingly autonomous systems. The HAT concept comes out of an aspiration to interact with increasingly autonomous systems as a team member, rather than simply use automation as a tool. The authors, and others, have proposed core tenets for HAT that include bi-directional communication, automation and system transparency, and advanced coordination between human and automated teammates via predefined, dynamic task sequences known as "plays." It is believed that, with proper implementation, HAT should foster appropriate teamwork, thus increasing trust and reliance on the system, which in turn will reduce workload, increase situation awareness, and improve performance. To this end, HAT has been demonstrated and/or studied in multiple applications including search and rescue operations, healthcare and medicine, autonomous vehicles, photography, and aviation. The current paper presents one such effort to apply HAT. It details the design of a HAT agent, developed by Human Automation Teaming Solutions, Inc., to facilitate teamwork between the automation and the human operator of an advanced ground dispatch station. This dispatch station was developed to support a NASA project investigating a concept called Reduced Crew Operations (RCO); consequently, we have named the agent R-HATS. Part of the RCO concept involves a ground operator providing enhanced support to a large number of aircraft with a single pilot on the flight deck. When assisted by R-HATS, operators can monitor and support or manage a large number of aircraft and use plays to respond in real-time to complicated, workload-intensive events (e.g., an airport closure). A play is a plan that encapsulates goals, tasks, and a task allocation strategy appropriate for a particular situation. In the current implementation, when a play is initiated by a user, R-HATS determines what tasks need to be completed and has the ability to autonomously execute them (e.g., determining diversion options and uplinking new routes to aircraft) when it is safe and appropriate. R-HATS has been designed to both support end users and researchers in RCO and HAT. Additionally, R-HATS and its underlying architecture were developed with generalizability in mind as a modular software applicable outside of RCO/aviation domains. This paper will also discuss future further development and testing of R-HATS.

AIAA AVIATION 2021 FORUM, 2021

Advances of early twenty-first century aviation and transportation technologies provide opportuni... more Advances of early twenty-first century aviation and transportation technologies provide opportunities for enhanced aerial projects, and the overall integration of unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) into the National Airspace System (NAS) has applications across a wide range of operations. Through these, remote operators have learned to manage several UAS at the same time in a variety of operational environments. The present work details a component piece of an ongoing body of research into multi-UAS operations. Beginning in early 2020, NASA has collaborated with Uber Technologies to design and develop concepts of operations, roles and responsibilities, and ground control station (GCS) concepts to enable food delivery operations via multiple, small UAS (sUAS). A cognitive walkthrough was chosen as the method for data collection. This allowed information to be gathered from UAS subject matter experts (SMEs) that could further mature designs for future human-in-the-loop (HITL) simulations;in addition, it allowed information to be collected remotely during the stringent restrictions of the COVID-19 pandemic. Consequently, the described cognitive walkthrough activity utilized remote data collection protocols mediated through the usage of programs designed for presentation and telecommunications. Scenarios were designed, complete with airspace, contingencies, and remedial actions, to be presented to the SMEs. Information was collected using a combination of rating scales and open-ended questions. Results received from the SMEs revealed expected hazards, workloads, and information concerns inherent in the contingency scenarios. SMEs also provided insight into the design of GCS tools and displays as well as the duties and relationships of human operators (i.e., monitors) and automation (i.e., informers and flight managers). Implications of these findings are discussed.

AIAA Aviation 2019 Forum, 2019

NASA's Unmanned Aircraft Systems Integration into the National Airspace System (UAS in the NAS) p... more NASA's Unmanned Aircraft Systems Integration into the National Airspace System (UAS in the NAS) project examines the technical barriers associated with the operation of UAS in civil airspace. For UAS, the removal of the pilot from onboard the aircraft has eliminated the ability of the ground-based pilot in command (PIC) to use out-the-window visual information to make judgements about a potential threat of a loss of well clear with another aircraft. NASA's Phase 1 research supported the development of a Detect and Avoid (DAA) system that supports the ground-based pilot's ability to detect potential traffic conflicts and determine a resolution maneuver, but existing display/alerting requirements did not account for multiple UAS control (1:N). Demands for increased scalability of UAS in the NAS operations are expected to create a need for simultaneous control of UAs, and thus, a new DAA HMI design will likely be necessary. Previous research, however, has found performance degradations as the number of vehicles under operator control has increased. The purpose of the current human-in-the-loop (HITL) simulation was to examine the viability of 1:N operations with the Phase 1 DAA alerting and guidance. Sixteen UAS pilots flew three scenarios with varying number of UAs under their control (1:1, 1:3, 1:5). In addition to their supervisory and sensor mission responsibilities, pilots were to utilize the DAA system to remain DAA well clear (DWC) during scripted conflicts of mixed severity. Measured response times, separation performance, mission task data, and subjective feedback were collected to assess how the multi-UAS control configuration impacted pilots' ability to maintain DAA well clear and perform the mission tasks. Overall, the DAA system proved surprisingly adaptive to multi-UAS control for preventing losses of DAA well clear (LoDWC). The findings suggest that, while multi-UAS operators are able to maintain safe separation (DWC) from other traffic, their ability to efficiently perform missions drastically decreases with their number of controlled vehicles. Pilot feedback indicated that, for this context, the use of automation support tools for completing and managing mission tasks would be appropriate and desired, especially for ensuring efficient use of assets. Finally, human-machine interface (HMI) design considerations for multi-UAS operations are discussed.

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, Jun 13, 2017

Human involvement with increasingly autonomous systems must adjust to allow for a more dynamic re... more Human involvement with increasingly autonomous systems must adjust to allow for a more dynamic relationship involving cooperation and teamwork. As part of an ongoing project to develop a framework for humanautonomy teaming (HAT) in aviation, a study was conducted to evaluate proposed tenets of HAT. Participants performed a flight-following task at a ground station both with and without HAT features enabled. Overall, participants preferred the ground station with HAT features enabled over the station without the HAT features. Participants reported that the HAT displays and automation were preferred for keeping up with operationally important issues. Additionally, participants reported that the HAT displays and automation provided enough situation awareness to complete the task, reduced the necessary workload and were efficient. Overall, there was general agreement that HAT features supported teaming with the automation. These results will be used to refine and expand our proposed framework for human-autonomy teaming.

Cognition, Technology & Work, 2017

From the 1950s through the 1980s, aircraft design was marked by an increase in reliability and au... more From the 1950s through the 1980s, aircraft design was marked by an increase in reliability and automation, and, correspondingly, a decrease in the crew complement required to fly, resulting in the two-pilot operations seen today. However, while technological progress has continued, there have been no further reductions in crew complement, largely because the two pilots mitigate each other's failures (both mistakes and incapacitation). We present a conceptual framework under which we believe a reduction in crew complement could be made while maintaining current levels of safety. Under this framework, much of the monitoring and verification would fall upon automation. Ground personnel performing an enhanced flight following role would aid the remaining pilot in assessment of any off-nominal event. Additionally, in particularly high-workload or risky situations, a ground pilot could step into the role of first officer. We then discuss four human-in-the-loop simulations conducted at NASA Ames Research Center that illustrate key aspects of this conceptual framework and informed key aspects of its development.

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 2017

This investigation assessed the impact of ultra-long-range (ULR) simulator flights, departing eit... more This investigation assessed the impact of ultra-long-range (ULR) simulator flights, departing either in the morning or late evening, on the alertness and performance of 17 commercial aviators. Immediately prior to and throughout each flight, alertness and performance were assessed via a computerized test of sustained attention, subjective questionnaires, and "hand-flying" tasks. There were fatigue-related effects on the majority of assessments, and the nature of these effects was consistent across the vigilance and self-report measures. However, the operational "hand-flying" manuevers proved insensitive to the impact of fatigue probably due to procedural factors. Regardless, the results of the present study suggest that fatigue associated with prolonged wakefulness in ULR flight operations will interact with flight schedules due to circadian and homeostatic influences. In this study, the pilots departing at night were at a greater initial disadvantage (during cru...

RTCA SC228 WG2 Face to Face Meeting, Mar 27, 2018

Human Interface and the Management of Information. Information in Applications and Services, 2018

Full autonomy seems to be the goal for system developers in almost every area of the economy. How... more Full autonomy seems to be the goal for system developers in almost every area of the economy. However, as we move from automated systems to autonomous systems, designers have needed to insert humans to oversee automation that has traditionally been brittle or incomplete. This creates its own problems as the operator is usually out of the loop when the automation hands over problems that it cannot handle. To better handle these situations, it has been proposed that we develop human automation teams that have shared goals and objectives to support task performance. This paper first summarizes a body of research to develop ground station automation support for single pilot transport operations. Then the paper will describe an initial model of Human Automation Teaming (HAT) which has three elements: transparency, bi-directional communications, and human-directed execution. Transparency in our model is a method for giving insight into the reasoning behind automated recommendations and actions, bi-directional communication allows the operator to communicate directly with the automation, and finally the automation defers execution to the human. The model was implemented through a number of features on an electronic flight bag (EFB) which are described in the paper. The EFB was installed in a mid-fidelity flight simulator and used by 12 airline pilots to support diversion decisions during off-nominal flight scenarios. Pilots reported that working with the HAT automation made diversion decisions easier and reduced their workload. They also reported that the information provided about diversion airports was similar to what they would receive from ground dispatch, thus making coordination with dispatch easier and less time consuming. These HAT features engender more trust in the automation when appropriate, and less when not, allowing improved supervision of automated functions by flight crews.

Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 2020

A human-in-the-loop simulation was conducted to evaluate the impact of Unmanned Aircraft Systems ... more A human-in-the-loop simulation was conducted to evaluate the impact of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) with low size, weight, and power (SWaP) sensors operating in a busy, low-altitude sector. Use of low SWaP sensors allow for UAS to perform detect-and-avoid (DAA) maneuvers against non-transponding traffic in the sector. Depending upon the detection range of the low SWaP sensor, the UAS pilot may or may not have time to coordinate with air traffic controllers (ATCos) prior to performing the DAA maneuver. ATCo’s sector performance and subjective ratings of acceptability were obtained in four conditions that varied in UAS-ATCo coordination (all or none) prior to the DAA maneuver and workload (higher or lower). For performance, ATCos committed more losses of separation in high than low workload conditions. They also had to make more flight plan changes to manage the UAS when the UAS pilot did not coordinate DAA maneuvers compared to when they did coordinate the maneuvers prior to execu...

Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2016

Unmanned aerial systems, advanced cockpits, and air traffic management are all seeing dramatic in... more Unmanned aerial systems, advanced cockpits, and air traffic management are all seeing dramatic increases in automation. However, while automation may take on some tasks previously performed by humans, humans will still be required to remain in the system for the foreseeable future. The collaboration between humans and these increasingly autonomous systems will begin to resemble cooperation between teammates, rather than simple task allocation. It is critical to understand this human-autonomy teaming (HAT) to optimize these systems in the future. One methodology to understand HAT is by identifying recurring patterns of HAT that have similar characteristics and solutions. This paper applies a methodology for identifying HAT patterns to an advanced cockpit project.

Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting

Humans are frequently left to “backstop” automated systems, and Human Factors specialists have ar... more Humans are frequently left to “backstop” automated systems, and Human Factors specialists have argued against this for decades with, at best, partial success. What if we took a different tack… and designed to support it? The participants were involved in a recent effort to review and document cases across multiple domains where operators acted as a “failsafe” for automation, intervening in unanticipated situations to maximize success and minimize damage. We defined a “Human As Failsafe” (HAF) incident and then investigated conditions and practices making HAF success more or less likely. Analyzing these historical incidents, we suggested remediation approaches. The project also examined the legal concept of culpability (i.e., when intervention should have happened but didn’t) and proposed a state-machine-based analytic simulation to identify when HAF interventions are plausible. The panel objective will be to briefly present these concepts, but more generally to discuss designing for...

Advances in Neuroergonomics and Cognitive Engineering, 2021

The education and training module (ETM) in alertness management has now been integrated as part o... more The education and training module (ETM) in alertness management has now been integrated as part of the training regimen of the Pilot Proficiency Awards Program ("WINGS") of the Federal Aviation Administration. Originated and now maintained current by the Fatigue Countermeasures Group at NASA Ames Research Center, the ETM in Alertness Management is designed to give pilots the benefit of the best and most recent research on the basics of sleep physiology, the causes of fatigue, and strategies for managing alertness during flight operations. The WINGS program is an incentive program that encourages pilots at all licensing levels to participate in recurrent training, upon completion of which distinctive lapel or tie pins (wings) and certificates of completion are awarded. In addition to flight training, all WINGS applicants must attend at least one FAA-sponsored safety seminar, FAA-sanctioned safety seminar, or industry recurrent training program. The Fatigue Countermeasures G...

Advances in Neuroergonomics and Cognitive Engineering, 2017

Automation has entered nearly every aspect of our lives, but it often remains hard to understand.... more Automation has entered nearly every aspect of our lives, but it often remains hard to understand. Why is this? Automation is often brittle, requiring constant human oversight to assure it operates as intended. This oversight has become harder as automation has become more complicated. To resolve this problem, Human-Autonomy Teaming (HAT) has been proposed. HAT is based on advances in providing automation transparency, a method for giving insight into the reasoning behind automated recommendations and actions, along with advances in human automation communications (e.g., voice). These, in turn, permit more trust in the automation when appropriate, and less when not, allowing a more targeted supervision of automated functions. This paper proposes a framework for HAT, incorporating three key tenets: transparency, bi-directional communication, and operator directed authority. These tenets, along with more capable automation, represent a shift in human-automation relations.

The International Journal of Sleep and Wakefulness-Primary Care is designed to bring a critical a... more The International Journal of Sleep and Wakefulness-Primary Care is designed to bring a critical analysis of the world literature on sleep disorders, written by clinicians, for clinicians, to an international, multidisciplinary audience. Our mission is to promote better understanding of the treatment of sleep disorders across the global healthcare system by providing an active forum or the discussion of clinical and healthcare issues. Leading Articles-These major review articles are chosen to reflect topical clinical and healthcare issues in sleep disorders. All contributions undergo a strict editorial review process. Foundations in Sleep/In Focus-These articles are designed to educate primary care physicians in the basic principles shaping modern sleep medicine. Clinical Reviews-The most important papers from the best of the international literature on sleep disorders are systematically selected by an internationally recognized panel of experts. The Editors then prepare concise and critical analyses of each paper, and, most importantly, place the findings into clinical context. Meeting Reports-The International Journal of Sleep and Wakefulness-Primary Care also provides incisive reportage from the most important international congresses.

Value in Health, 2007

first clinically isolated event (CIS), with a high probability of progressing to clinical definit... more first clinically isolated event (CIS), with a high probability of progressing to clinical definite multiple sclerosis (CDMS). We evaluated the long-term cost-effectiveness of treating CIS patients with interferon-b-1b (IFNB-1b) to delay conversion to CDMS and subsequent disease progression. METHODS: A Markov model was developed to estimate the cost-effectiveness of IFNB-1b compared to no treatment based on a double blind 2-year trial (BENEFIT). Data from the MS registries in Stockholm (Sweden) and in Lyon (France) were used to populate the model in addition to efficacy data from the clinical trial. Patients converting to CDMS are eligible for any of the licensed disease-modifying drugs (DMD) and disease progression under active treatment is estimated using the treated patients in the Stockholm MS Registry. Patients withdrawing from treatment during or after the trial follow the disease progression of patients not on DMDs in the Lyon MS registry (EDMUS). Disease development is expressed as moving from CIS to mild, moderate and severe disability. Costs and utilities are assigned to patients based on observational data from the Stockholm area. Results are presented as cost per quality-adjusted lifeyears (QALYs) gained, from the societal perspective, in 2006 €. RESULTS: Including all patients, the cost per QALY gained with IFNB-1b is 33,185 € over 20 years. For patients with a mono-focal CIS, prevention with IFNB-1b dominates no treatment, with cost-savings of 13,338 € for a QALY gain of 0.29 (both discounted with 3%). Results are sensitive to the time horizon, the treatment duration and proportion of patients treated at conversion, and the perspective of the analysis. CONCLUSION: Within the framework of this analysis in Sweden, around 35% of estimates are cost-saving and more than half of cost-effectiveness ratios remain below a threshold of 50,000 € under most assumptions.

Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 2010

To assess the impact of sleep disturbances on work performance/ productivity. Methods: Employees ... more To assess the impact of sleep disturbances on work performance/ productivity. Methods: Employees (N ϭ 4188) at four US corporations were surveyed about sleep patterns and completed the Work Limitations Questionnaire. Respondents were classified into four categories: insomnia, insufficient sleep syndrome, at-risk, and good sleep. Employer costs related to productivity changes were estimated through the Work Limitations Questionnaire. Performance/productivity, safety, and treatment measures were compared using a one-way analysis of variance model. Results: Compared with at-risk and good-sleep groups, insomnia and insufficient sleep syndrome groups had significantly worse productivity, performance, and safety outcomes. The insomnia group had the highest rate of sleep medication use. The other groups were more likely to use nonmedication treatments. Fatigue-related productivity losses were estimated to cost $1967/employee annually. Conclusions: Sleep disturbances contribute to decreased employee productivity at a high cost to employers.

AIAA Aviation 2019 Forum, 2019

2017 IEEE/AIAA 36th Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC), 2017

Within human factors there is burgeoning interest in the "human-autonomy teaming" (HAT) concept a... more Within human factors there is burgeoning interest in the "human-autonomy teaming" (HAT) concept as a way to address the challenges of interacting with complex, increasingly autonomous systems. The HAT concept comes out of an aspiration to interact with increasingly autonomous systems as a team member, rather than simply use automation as a tool. The authors, and others, have proposed core tenets for HAT that include bi-directional communication, automation and system transparency, and advanced coordination between human and automated teammates via predefined, dynamic task sequences known as "plays." It is believed that, with proper implementation, HAT should foster appropriate teamwork, thus increasing trust and reliance on the system, which in turn will reduce workload, increase situation awareness, and improve performance. To this end, HAT has been demonstrated and/or studied in multiple applications including search and rescue operations, healthcare and medicine, autonomous vehicles, photography, and aviation. The current paper presents one such effort to apply HAT. It details the design of a HAT agent, developed by Human Automation Teaming Solutions, Inc., to facilitate teamwork between the automation and the human operator of an advanced ground dispatch station. This dispatch station was developed to support a NASA project investigating a concept called Reduced Crew Operations (RCO); consequently, we have named the agent R-HATS. Part of the RCO concept involves a ground operator providing enhanced support to a large number of aircraft with a single pilot on the flight deck. When assisted by R-HATS, operators can monitor and support or manage a large number of aircraft and use plays to respond in real-time to complicated, workload-intensive events (e.g., an airport closure). A play is a plan that encapsulates goals, tasks, and a task allocation strategy appropriate for a particular situation. In the current implementation, when a play is initiated by a user, R-HATS determines what tasks need to be completed and has the ability to autonomously execute them (e.g., determining diversion options and uplinking new routes to aircraft) when it is safe and appropriate. R-HATS has been designed to both support end users and researchers in RCO and HAT. Additionally, R-HATS and its underlying architecture were developed with generalizability in mind as a modular software applicable outside of RCO/aviation domains. This paper will also discuss future further development and testing of R-HATS.

AIAA AVIATION 2021 FORUM, 2021

Advances of early twenty-first century aviation and transportation technologies provide opportuni... more Advances of early twenty-first century aviation and transportation technologies provide opportunities for enhanced aerial projects, and the overall integration of unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) into the National Airspace System (NAS) has applications across a wide range of operations. Through these, remote operators have learned to manage several UAS at the same time in a variety of operational environments. The present work details a component piece of an ongoing body of research into multi-UAS operations. Beginning in early 2020, NASA has collaborated with Uber Technologies to design and develop concepts of operations, roles and responsibilities, and ground control station (GCS) concepts to enable food delivery operations via multiple, small UAS (sUAS). A cognitive walkthrough was chosen as the method for data collection. This allowed information to be gathered from UAS subject matter experts (SMEs) that could further mature designs for future human-in-the-loop (HITL) simulations;in addition, it allowed information to be collected remotely during the stringent restrictions of the COVID-19 pandemic. Consequently, the described cognitive walkthrough activity utilized remote data collection protocols mediated through the usage of programs designed for presentation and telecommunications. Scenarios were designed, complete with airspace, contingencies, and remedial actions, to be presented to the SMEs. Information was collected using a combination of rating scales and open-ended questions. Results received from the SMEs revealed expected hazards, workloads, and information concerns inherent in the contingency scenarios. SMEs also provided insight into the design of GCS tools and displays as well as the duties and relationships of human operators (i.e., monitors) and automation (i.e., informers and flight managers). Implications of these findings are discussed.

AIAA Aviation 2019 Forum, 2019

NASA's Unmanned Aircraft Systems Integration into the National Airspace System (UAS in the NAS) p... more NASA's Unmanned Aircraft Systems Integration into the National Airspace System (UAS in the NAS) project examines the technical barriers associated with the operation of UAS in civil airspace. For UAS, the removal of the pilot from onboard the aircraft has eliminated the ability of the ground-based pilot in command (PIC) to use out-the-window visual information to make judgements about a potential threat of a loss of well clear with another aircraft. NASA's Phase 1 research supported the development of a Detect and Avoid (DAA) system that supports the ground-based pilot's ability to detect potential traffic conflicts and determine a resolution maneuver, but existing display/alerting requirements did not account for multiple UAS control (1:N). Demands for increased scalability of UAS in the NAS operations are expected to create a need for simultaneous control of UAs, and thus, a new DAA HMI design will likely be necessary. Previous research, however, has found performance degradations as the number of vehicles under operator control has increased. The purpose of the current human-in-the-loop (HITL) simulation was to examine the viability of 1:N operations with the Phase 1 DAA alerting and guidance. Sixteen UAS pilots flew three scenarios with varying number of UAs under their control (1:1, 1:3, 1:5). In addition to their supervisory and sensor mission responsibilities, pilots were to utilize the DAA system to remain DAA well clear (DWC) during scripted conflicts of mixed severity. Measured response times, separation performance, mission task data, and subjective feedback were collected to assess how the multi-UAS control configuration impacted pilots' ability to maintain DAA well clear and perform the mission tasks. Overall, the DAA system proved surprisingly adaptive to multi-UAS control for preventing losses of DAA well clear (LoDWC). The findings suggest that, while multi-UAS operators are able to maintain safe separation (DWC) from other traffic, their ability to efficiently perform missions drastically decreases with their number of controlled vehicles. Pilot feedback indicated that, for this context, the use of automation support tools for completing and managing mission tasks would be appropriate and desired, especially for ensuring efficient use of assets. Finally, human-machine interface (HMI) design considerations for multi-UAS operations are discussed.

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, Jun 13, 2017

Human involvement with increasingly autonomous systems must adjust to allow for a more dynamic re... more Human involvement with increasingly autonomous systems must adjust to allow for a more dynamic relationship involving cooperation and teamwork. As part of an ongoing project to develop a framework for humanautonomy teaming (HAT) in aviation, a study was conducted to evaluate proposed tenets of HAT. Participants performed a flight-following task at a ground station both with and without HAT features enabled. Overall, participants preferred the ground station with HAT features enabled over the station without the HAT features. Participants reported that the HAT displays and automation were preferred for keeping up with operationally important issues. Additionally, participants reported that the HAT displays and automation provided enough situation awareness to complete the task, reduced the necessary workload and were efficient. Overall, there was general agreement that HAT features supported teaming with the automation. These results will be used to refine and expand our proposed framework for human-autonomy teaming.

Cognition, Technology & Work, 2017

From the 1950s through the 1980s, aircraft design was marked by an increase in reliability and au... more From the 1950s through the 1980s, aircraft design was marked by an increase in reliability and automation, and, correspondingly, a decrease in the crew complement required to fly, resulting in the two-pilot operations seen today. However, while technological progress has continued, there have been no further reductions in crew complement, largely because the two pilots mitigate each other's failures (both mistakes and incapacitation). We present a conceptual framework under which we believe a reduction in crew complement could be made while maintaining current levels of safety. Under this framework, much of the monitoring and verification would fall upon automation. Ground personnel performing an enhanced flight following role would aid the remaining pilot in assessment of any off-nominal event. Additionally, in particularly high-workload or risky situations, a ground pilot could step into the role of first officer. We then discuss four human-in-the-loop simulations conducted at NASA Ames Research Center that illustrate key aspects of this conceptual framework and informed key aspects of its development.

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 2017

This investigation assessed the impact of ultra-long-range (ULR) simulator flights, departing eit... more This investigation assessed the impact of ultra-long-range (ULR) simulator flights, departing either in the morning or late evening, on the alertness and performance of 17 commercial aviators. Immediately prior to and throughout each flight, alertness and performance were assessed via a computerized test of sustained attention, subjective questionnaires, and "hand-flying" tasks. There were fatigue-related effects on the majority of assessments, and the nature of these effects was consistent across the vigilance and self-report measures. However, the operational "hand-flying" manuevers proved insensitive to the impact of fatigue probably due to procedural factors. Regardless, the results of the present study suggest that fatigue associated with prolonged wakefulness in ULR flight operations will interact with flight schedules due to circadian and homeostatic influences. In this study, the pilots departing at night were at a greater initial disadvantage (during cru...

RTCA SC228 WG2 Face to Face Meeting, Mar 27, 2018

Human Interface and the Management of Information. Information in Applications and Services, 2018

Full autonomy seems to be the goal for system developers in almost every area of the economy. How... more Full autonomy seems to be the goal for system developers in almost every area of the economy. However, as we move from automated systems to autonomous systems, designers have needed to insert humans to oversee automation that has traditionally been brittle or incomplete. This creates its own problems as the operator is usually out of the loop when the automation hands over problems that it cannot handle. To better handle these situations, it has been proposed that we develop human automation teams that have shared goals and objectives to support task performance. This paper first summarizes a body of research to develop ground station automation support for single pilot transport operations. Then the paper will describe an initial model of Human Automation Teaming (HAT) which has three elements: transparency, bi-directional communications, and human-directed execution. Transparency in our model is a method for giving insight into the reasoning behind automated recommendations and actions, bi-directional communication allows the operator to communicate directly with the automation, and finally the automation defers execution to the human. The model was implemented through a number of features on an electronic flight bag (EFB) which are described in the paper. The EFB was installed in a mid-fidelity flight simulator and used by 12 airline pilots to support diversion decisions during off-nominal flight scenarios. Pilots reported that working with the HAT automation made diversion decisions easier and reduced their workload. They also reported that the information provided about diversion airports was similar to what they would receive from ground dispatch, thus making coordination with dispatch easier and less time consuming. These HAT features engender more trust in the automation when appropriate, and less when not, allowing improved supervision of automated functions by flight crews.

Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 2020

A human-in-the-loop simulation was conducted to evaluate the impact of Unmanned Aircraft Systems ... more A human-in-the-loop simulation was conducted to evaluate the impact of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) with low size, weight, and power (SWaP) sensors operating in a busy, low-altitude sector. Use of low SWaP sensors allow for UAS to perform detect-and-avoid (DAA) maneuvers against non-transponding traffic in the sector. Depending upon the detection range of the low SWaP sensor, the UAS pilot may or may not have time to coordinate with air traffic controllers (ATCos) prior to performing the DAA maneuver. ATCo’s sector performance and subjective ratings of acceptability were obtained in four conditions that varied in UAS-ATCo coordination (all or none) prior to the DAA maneuver and workload (higher or lower). For performance, ATCos committed more losses of separation in high than low workload conditions. They also had to make more flight plan changes to manage the UAS when the UAS pilot did not coordinate DAA maneuvers compared to when they did coordinate the maneuvers prior to execu...

Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 2016

Unmanned aerial systems, advanced cockpits, and air traffic management are all seeing dramatic in... more Unmanned aerial systems, advanced cockpits, and air traffic management are all seeing dramatic increases in automation. However, while automation may take on some tasks previously performed by humans, humans will still be required to remain in the system for the foreseeable future. The collaboration between humans and these increasingly autonomous systems will begin to resemble cooperation between teammates, rather than simple task allocation. It is critical to understand this human-autonomy teaming (HAT) to optimize these systems in the future. One methodology to understand HAT is by identifying recurring patterns of HAT that have similar characteristics and solutions. This paper applies a methodology for identifying HAT patterns to an advanced cockpit project.