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Papers by Yusuf Turan Çetiner

Research paper thumbnail of The Baghdad Pact : an Anglo-American quest for policy in the Middle East

This study considers the making of the Baghdad Pact in the Middle East and analyses the Anglo-Ame... more This study considers the making of the Baghdad Pact in the Middle East and analyses the Anglo-American relations around this security organisation. A defense organisation which was to embody states bordering south of the Soviet Union was the American conception of the Nothern Tier project in the first half of the 1950s. The Baghdad Pact eventually represented an adaptation of the Nothern Tier in which Britain was the leading country. The Baghdad Pact to which Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Britain belonged and of which the United States was defined loosely associated was a security organisation designed to entrench the Western positions against the Soviet Union in the Middle East in an era o f general instability. The first step towards the forming of a group of Northern Tier States was a treaty of friendship and cooperation signed on 3 April 1954 between Turkey and Pakistan. Subsequently, the Pact between Turkey and Iraq was signed in Baghdad on 24 February 1955. On 5 April, Britain's formal accession turned the Turkish-Iraqi Pact into the Baghdad Pact. The formation of the Baghdad Pact coincided with chaotic international changes and different perceptions of the regional states especially that o f Egypt. From the outset, Gamal Abd-el Nasser, and Egyptian nationalist, and a Pan-Arabist, opposed the Pact and unremittingly blamed the Iraqi government fo r Joining this British initiative. Nasser's anti-Pact policies had also effect on the Jordanian government which had problems to control the public sentiment. As a result, Jordan remained outside of the Pact. Despite these developments, American involvement in this alliance remained less extensive than British involvement. Apparently, there were divided views in the US government about the Baghdad Pact and Egypt. Given this premise, the main theme which will be discussed in this dissertation is the Anglo-American policies and their differences around the Baghdad Pact and the events which hampered this security organisation to develop into a long-lasting security mechanism. The failure to accomplish a strong defensive grouping in the Middle East was the end result of the lack of unanimous actions of the US and Britain. British views of the region was contrasted with the American government's perception of regional dynamics. Ultimately, the US contended itself with observer status in the organisation. In the end, after Iraq's defection in 1958following the coup of dissident military units, the Baghdad Pact functionally ended. IV özet Bu çalışma Ortadoğu'da Bağdat Paktı'nın kurulması üzerinedir ve bu güvenlik organizasyonu çevresindeki Îngiliz-Amerikan ilişkilerini analiz eder. Sovyetler Birliği'ni güneyden sınırlayan ülkelerin bir savuma organizasyonu içerisine dahil edilmesi, 1950'lerin ilk yarısında Amerikan kavramsallaştırması olan Kuzey Kuşağı projesiydi. Sonuçta, Bağdat Paktı, içinde İngiltere'nin başı çeken ülke olduğu Kuzey Kuşağı projesi'nin bir uygulaması oldu. Türkiye, Irak, İran, Pakistan ve İngiltere'nin içerisinde olduğu ve Amerikanın da gevşek bir şekilde ilişkili olarak tanımlandığı Bağdat Paktı, genel bir istikrarsızlık döneminde Ortadoğuda Batı pozisyonları 'nın güçlendirilmesi için tasarlanmış bir güvenlik organizasyonuydu.

Research paper thumbnail of Yüzyil Önce: “Büyük Güç” Kurgulari Ve 1921 Kahi̇re Konferansi

Ankara Üniversitesi Türk İnkılap Tarihi Enstitüsü Atatürk Yolu Dergisi, 2021

Bu makale, 1921 Kahire Konferansı'nın Orta Doğu'nun o zamanki Britanya emperyalist anlayışına gör... more Bu makale, 1921 Kahire Konferansı'nın Orta Doğu'nun o zamanki Britanya emperyalist anlayışına göre tasarlanmasındaki rolünü tartışmaktadır. Araştırma, ağırlıkla bölgenin çalkantılı iki büyük ülkesi olan Irak ve Suriye'nin kuruluşundaki, anılan konferans kapsamında sergilenmiş olan kurgusallığın nasıl gizlendiği sorusuyla ilgilidir. Bu çerçevede makalenin savı, bölgeye yabancı kurucu gücün iddiasının propagandaya dayandığıdır. Bunu ortaya koymak için ise söz konusu yabancı kurucu gücün birincil ve ikincil kaynaklarının eleştirel okumasına başvurulmaktadır.

Research paper thumbnail of The making of Turkey's western alliance : 1944-1952

Research paper thumbnail of The Baghdad Pact : an Anglo-American quest for policy in the Middle East

Bilkent University, 1995

This study considers the making of the Baghdad Pact in the Middle East and analyses the Anglo-Ame... more This study considers the making of the Baghdad Pact in the Middle East and analyses the Anglo-American relations around this security organisation. A defense organisation which was to embody states bordering south of the Soviet Union was the American conception of the Nothern Tier project in the first half of the 1950s. The Baghdad Pact eventually represented an adaptation of the Nothern Tier in which Britain was the leading country. The Baghdad Pact to which Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Britain belonged and of which the United States was defined loosely associated was a security organisation designed to entrench the Western positions against the Soviet Union in the Middle East in an era o f general instability. The first step towards the forming of a group of Northern Tier States was a treaty of friendship and cooperation signed on 3 April 1954 between Turkey and Pakistan. Subsequently, the Pact between Turkey and Iraq was signed in Baghdad on 24 February 1955. On 5 April, Britain's formal accession turned the Turkish-Iraqi Pact into the Baghdad Pact. The formation of the Baghdad Pact coincided with chaotic international changes and different perceptions of the regional states especially that o f Egypt. From the outset, Gamal Abd-el Nasser, and Egyptian nationalist, and a Pan-Arabist, opposed the Pact and unremittingly blamed the Iraqi government fo r Joining this British initiative. Nasser's anti-Pact policies had also effect on the Jordanian government which had problems to control the public sentiment. As a result, Jordan remained outside of the Pact. Despite these developments, American involvement in this alliance remained less extensive than British involvement. Apparently, there were divided views in the US government about the Baghdad Pact and Egypt. Given this premise, the main theme which will be discussed in this dissertation is the Anglo-American policies and their differences around the Baghdad Pact and the events which hampered this security organisation to develop into a long-lasting security mechanism. The failure to accomplish a strong defensive grouping in the Middle East was the end result of the lack of unanimous actions of the US and Britain. British views of the region was contrasted with the American government's perception of regional dynamics. Ultimately, the US contended itself with observer status in the organisation. In the end, after Iraq's defection in 1958following the coup of dissident military units, the Baghdad Pact functionally ended. IV özet Bu çalışma Ortadoğu'da Bağdat Paktı'nın kurulması üzerinedir ve bu güvenlik organizasyonu çevresindeki Îngiliz-Amerikan ilişkilerini analiz eder. Sovyetler Birliği'ni güneyden sınırlayan ülkelerin bir savuma organizasyonu içerisine dahil edilmesi, 1950'lerin ilk yarısında Amerikan kavramsallaştırması olan Kuzey Kuşağı projesiydi. Sonuçta, Bağdat Paktı, içinde İngiltere'nin başı çeken ülke olduğu Kuzey Kuşağı projesi'nin bir uygulaması oldu. Türkiye, Irak, İran, Pakistan ve İngiltere'nin içerisinde olduğu ve Amerikanın da gevşek bir şekilde ilişkili olarak tanımlandığı Bağdat Paktı, genel bir istikrarsızlık döneminde Ortadoğuda Batı pozisyonları 'nın güçlendirilmesi için tasarlanmış bir güvenlik organizasyonuydu.

Research paper thumbnail of Turkey and the West: From Neutrality to Commitment

Abbreviations Turkish Pronunciation Guide Foreword Acknowledgments 1. Scope and the Contention 2.... more Abbreviations Turkish Pronunciation Guide Foreword Acknowledgments 1. Scope and the Contention 2. A Challenged Neutrality: Turkey Under the Pressure of Emerging Rivals (1938-1940) 3. The War and Neutral Obligations: Turkish Foreign Policy Vis-a-Vis the Shifting Sands of Wartime Diplomacy (1941-1945) 4. Tensions Revealed: Prelude to War Cold and Hot, and the Beginnings of the Turkish Quest for Security (1946) 5. Turkey's Transformation Amidst Forceful Change and Turkish Strategies in Adapting to a New Security Environment (1945-1947) 6. War, Cold: Launching of the Western Security Pacts and a Re-Assessment of Turkish Role in the Middle East (1948-1949) 7. War, Hot: The Test of Wills in the Korean War and the Turkish Involvement in the Conflict (1950-1952) 8. The Northern Tier Arrangements and the Prelude to Regional Divergences (1953-1958) 9. Conclusion Bibliography Index of Names and Subjects About the Author

Research paper thumbnail of Turkey and the West From Neutrality to Commitment

Editorial Reviews Review Dr. Çetiner unravels the complexities of the period—from the dark war... more Editorial Reviews

Review

Dr. Çetiner unravels the complexities of the period—from the dark war years in which Turkish vulnerability was manifestly obvious to the outbreak of the Korean War. His perspective is unique, having access to the Archives of the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs [which are not open to the public], and his range of contacts with Turkish diplomats.

An attentive reading of this book will repay the reader with a greater appreciation of the complex issues of the period and of the difficult evaluations and choices that were made by Turkish leaders. History does not repeat itself, so no direct "lessons" can be drawn for the present situation, in which new ambiguities, difficulties and opportunities have arisen; but the study of momentous periods of the recent past carries its own rewards. (Martin Kolinsky, author of Britain's War in the Middle East: Strategy and Diplomacy, 1936–1942)

This book is a study of the key developments in Turkish foreign policy from the second half of the 1930s to the end of 1950s. It represents an important contribution to our understanding of this pivotal period which, in terms of the Turkish role in European and Middle Eastern contemporary history, is yet to be fully explored. An objective and detached analysis of Turkish foreign policy during this often neglected period is very much required in order to fully understand the development of Turkey’s orientation in the world today. (Pat Walsh, author of Britain’s Great War on Turkey)

About the Author

Yusuf Turan Çetiner has been a diplomat in the Turkish MFA since 1995. His works and various articles concentrate on the issues of XXth century diplomatic history and problems of reinterpreting major foreign policy issues. Turkey and the West: From Neutrality to Commitment is his first book and a major work completed within the span of more than a decade.

Books by Yusuf Turan Çetiner

Research paper thumbnail of Mitlerden Gerçeğe Büyük Savaş - 19. Yüzyıl Emperyalizminde Son Perde

Hiçbir savaşın toplumların ve ülkelerin birdenbire silaha sarılmaya karar vermelerinin sonucu ola... more Hiçbir savaşın toplumların ve ülkelerin birdenbire silaha sarılmaya karar vermelerinin sonucu olamayacağını anlamak güç olmasa gerek. Buna rağmen, geçmişin araştırılmasında siyasi ve askerî tarihe odaklanmaktan fazlasına ilgi gösterilmemesinin nedeni ne olabilir?
1914 yılına kadar Avrupa toplumsal ortamını şekillendiren sanat, bilim ve edebiyat içinde “değersizleştirilen bir şeyler” olduğu, ilginçtir ki hâlen fark edilmeyi bekler gibi. Avrupa imparatorlukları, toplumlarına karşı duygusal bağ taşımayan, hatta çoğu zaman aynı milletten dahi olmayan, evliliklerle akrabalık bağı kuran aristokratlar tarafından yönetiliyor; kilise, güç yarışından eksik olmuyor; seferberlik için düğmeye basıldığında her ülke yekdiğerinden geride ve eksik kalma korkusu ile milyonları bir çırpıda askere alıp cephelere sürebiliyordu. Öyleyse en başta değersizleştirilen “insan”dı.
Kültürel emperyalizm, hakikat tasasını önemsizleştirdiği kitleleri önce düşünmeyi sevmez sonra da düşünemez hâle getirirken kendini olduğundan farklı gösteriyor. Ana akımın kalemleri ise tarihi açıklamaktan çok örtük anlatımın rahatı içinde gözüküyor. Geçmiş, gerçekte sadece kalabalıklaştırılmış sayfalar içinde, âdeta insani olan ne varsa ondan arındırılmış, sonuçta çoğu kişinin “zaten olan olmuş” diyerek bir süre sonra bir benzeri içinde kendini bulduğu bir masala dönüştüğünde payımıza kanıksamalardan daha fazlası düşmeli. Mitler; putlar gibi…insanlığın ilerleyişi önünde, kırılmayı bekliyor.

Research paper thumbnail of The Baghdad Pact : an Anglo-American quest for policy in the Middle East

This study considers the making of the Baghdad Pact in the Middle East and analyses the Anglo-Ame... more This study considers the making of the Baghdad Pact in the Middle East and analyses the Anglo-American relations around this security organisation. A defense organisation which was to embody states bordering south of the Soviet Union was the American conception of the Nothern Tier project in the first half of the 1950s. The Baghdad Pact eventually represented an adaptation of the Nothern Tier in which Britain was the leading country. The Baghdad Pact to which Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Britain belonged and of which the United States was defined loosely associated was a security organisation designed to entrench the Western positions against the Soviet Union in the Middle East in an era o f general instability. The first step towards the forming of a group of Northern Tier States was a treaty of friendship and cooperation signed on 3 April 1954 between Turkey and Pakistan. Subsequently, the Pact between Turkey and Iraq was signed in Baghdad on 24 February 1955. On 5 April, Britain's formal accession turned the Turkish-Iraqi Pact into the Baghdad Pact. The formation of the Baghdad Pact coincided with chaotic international changes and different perceptions of the regional states especially that o f Egypt. From the outset, Gamal Abd-el Nasser, and Egyptian nationalist, and a Pan-Arabist, opposed the Pact and unremittingly blamed the Iraqi government fo r Joining this British initiative. Nasser's anti-Pact policies had also effect on the Jordanian government which had problems to control the public sentiment. As a result, Jordan remained outside of the Pact. Despite these developments, American involvement in this alliance remained less extensive than British involvement. Apparently, there were divided views in the US government about the Baghdad Pact and Egypt. Given this premise, the main theme which will be discussed in this dissertation is the Anglo-American policies and their differences around the Baghdad Pact and the events which hampered this security organisation to develop into a long-lasting security mechanism. The failure to accomplish a strong defensive grouping in the Middle East was the end result of the lack of unanimous actions of the US and Britain. British views of the region was contrasted with the American government's perception of regional dynamics. Ultimately, the US contended itself with observer status in the organisation. In the end, after Iraq's defection in 1958following the coup of dissident military units, the Baghdad Pact functionally ended. IV özet Bu çalışma Ortadoğu'da Bağdat Paktı'nın kurulması üzerinedir ve bu güvenlik organizasyonu çevresindeki Îngiliz-Amerikan ilişkilerini analiz eder. Sovyetler Birliği'ni güneyden sınırlayan ülkelerin bir savuma organizasyonu içerisine dahil edilmesi, 1950'lerin ilk yarısında Amerikan kavramsallaştırması olan Kuzey Kuşağı projesiydi. Sonuçta, Bağdat Paktı, içinde İngiltere'nin başı çeken ülke olduğu Kuzey Kuşağı projesi'nin bir uygulaması oldu. Türkiye, Irak, İran, Pakistan ve İngiltere'nin içerisinde olduğu ve Amerikanın da gevşek bir şekilde ilişkili olarak tanımlandığı Bağdat Paktı, genel bir istikrarsızlık döneminde Ortadoğuda Batı pozisyonları 'nın güçlendirilmesi için tasarlanmış bir güvenlik organizasyonuydu.

Research paper thumbnail of Yüzyil Önce: “Büyük Güç” Kurgulari Ve 1921 Kahi̇re Konferansi

Ankara Üniversitesi Türk İnkılap Tarihi Enstitüsü Atatürk Yolu Dergisi, 2021

Bu makale, 1921 Kahire Konferansı'nın Orta Doğu'nun o zamanki Britanya emperyalist anlayışına gör... more Bu makale, 1921 Kahire Konferansı'nın Orta Doğu'nun o zamanki Britanya emperyalist anlayışına göre tasarlanmasındaki rolünü tartışmaktadır. Araştırma, ağırlıkla bölgenin çalkantılı iki büyük ülkesi olan Irak ve Suriye'nin kuruluşundaki, anılan konferans kapsamında sergilenmiş olan kurgusallığın nasıl gizlendiği sorusuyla ilgilidir. Bu çerçevede makalenin savı, bölgeye yabancı kurucu gücün iddiasının propagandaya dayandığıdır. Bunu ortaya koymak için ise söz konusu yabancı kurucu gücün birincil ve ikincil kaynaklarının eleştirel okumasına başvurulmaktadır.

Research paper thumbnail of The making of Turkey's western alliance : 1944-1952

Research paper thumbnail of The Baghdad Pact : an Anglo-American quest for policy in the Middle East

Bilkent University, 1995

This study considers the making of the Baghdad Pact in the Middle East and analyses the Anglo-Ame... more This study considers the making of the Baghdad Pact in the Middle East and analyses the Anglo-American relations around this security organisation. A defense organisation which was to embody states bordering south of the Soviet Union was the American conception of the Nothern Tier project in the first half of the 1950s. The Baghdad Pact eventually represented an adaptation of the Nothern Tier in which Britain was the leading country. The Baghdad Pact to which Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Britain belonged and of which the United States was defined loosely associated was a security organisation designed to entrench the Western positions against the Soviet Union in the Middle East in an era o f general instability. The first step towards the forming of a group of Northern Tier States was a treaty of friendship and cooperation signed on 3 April 1954 between Turkey and Pakistan. Subsequently, the Pact between Turkey and Iraq was signed in Baghdad on 24 February 1955. On 5 April, Britain's formal accession turned the Turkish-Iraqi Pact into the Baghdad Pact. The formation of the Baghdad Pact coincided with chaotic international changes and different perceptions of the regional states especially that o f Egypt. From the outset, Gamal Abd-el Nasser, and Egyptian nationalist, and a Pan-Arabist, opposed the Pact and unremittingly blamed the Iraqi government fo r Joining this British initiative. Nasser's anti-Pact policies had also effect on the Jordanian government which had problems to control the public sentiment. As a result, Jordan remained outside of the Pact. Despite these developments, American involvement in this alliance remained less extensive than British involvement. Apparently, there were divided views in the US government about the Baghdad Pact and Egypt. Given this premise, the main theme which will be discussed in this dissertation is the Anglo-American policies and their differences around the Baghdad Pact and the events which hampered this security organisation to develop into a long-lasting security mechanism. The failure to accomplish a strong defensive grouping in the Middle East was the end result of the lack of unanimous actions of the US and Britain. British views of the region was contrasted with the American government's perception of regional dynamics. Ultimately, the US contended itself with observer status in the organisation. In the end, after Iraq's defection in 1958following the coup of dissident military units, the Baghdad Pact functionally ended. IV özet Bu çalışma Ortadoğu'da Bağdat Paktı'nın kurulması üzerinedir ve bu güvenlik organizasyonu çevresindeki Îngiliz-Amerikan ilişkilerini analiz eder. Sovyetler Birliği'ni güneyden sınırlayan ülkelerin bir savuma organizasyonu içerisine dahil edilmesi, 1950'lerin ilk yarısında Amerikan kavramsallaştırması olan Kuzey Kuşağı projesiydi. Sonuçta, Bağdat Paktı, içinde İngiltere'nin başı çeken ülke olduğu Kuzey Kuşağı projesi'nin bir uygulaması oldu. Türkiye, Irak, İran, Pakistan ve İngiltere'nin içerisinde olduğu ve Amerikanın da gevşek bir şekilde ilişkili olarak tanımlandığı Bağdat Paktı, genel bir istikrarsızlık döneminde Ortadoğuda Batı pozisyonları 'nın güçlendirilmesi için tasarlanmış bir güvenlik organizasyonuydu.

Research paper thumbnail of Turkey and the West: From Neutrality to Commitment

Abbreviations Turkish Pronunciation Guide Foreword Acknowledgments 1. Scope and the Contention 2.... more Abbreviations Turkish Pronunciation Guide Foreword Acknowledgments 1. Scope and the Contention 2. A Challenged Neutrality: Turkey Under the Pressure of Emerging Rivals (1938-1940) 3. The War and Neutral Obligations: Turkish Foreign Policy Vis-a-Vis the Shifting Sands of Wartime Diplomacy (1941-1945) 4. Tensions Revealed: Prelude to War Cold and Hot, and the Beginnings of the Turkish Quest for Security (1946) 5. Turkey's Transformation Amidst Forceful Change and Turkish Strategies in Adapting to a New Security Environment (1945-1947) 6. War, Cold: Launching of the Western Security Pacts and a Re-Assessment of Turkish Role in the Middle East (1948-1949) 7. War, Hot: The Test of Wills in the Korean War and the Turkish Involvement in the Conflict (1950-1952) 8. The Northern Tier Arrangements and the Prelude to Regional Divergences (1953-1958) 9. Conclusion Bibliography Index of Names and Subjects About the Author

Research paper thumbnail of Turkey and the West From Neutrality to Commitment

Editorial Reviews Review Dr. Çetiner unravels the complexities of the period—from the dark war... more Editorial Reviews

Review

Dr. Çetiner unravels the complexities of the period—from the dark war years in which Turkish vulnerability was manifestly obvious to the outbreak of the Korean War. His perspective is unique, having access to the Archives of the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs [which are not open to the public], and his range of contacts with Turkish diplomats.

An attentive reading of this book will repay the reader with a greater appreciation of the complex issues of the period and of the difficult evaluations and choices that were made by Turkish leaders. History does not repeat itself, so no direct "lessons" can be drawn for the present situation, in which new ambiguities, difficulties and opportunities have arisen; but the study of momentous periods of the recent past carries its own rewards. (Martin Kolinsky, author of Britain's War in the Middle East: Strategy and Diplomacy, 1936–1942)

This book is a study of the key developments in Turkish foreign policy from the second half of the 1930s to the end of 1950s. It represents an important contribution to our understanding of this pivotal period which, in terms of the Turkish role in European and Middle Eastern contemporary history, is yet to be fully explored. An objective and detached analysis of Turkish foreign policy during this often neglected period is very much required in order to fully understand the development of Turkey’s orientation in the world today. (Pat Walsh, author of Britain’s Great War on Turkey)

About the Author

Yusuf Turan Çetiner has been a diplomat in the Turkish MFA since 1995. His works and various articles concentrate on the issues of XXth century diplomatic history and problems of reinterpreting major foreign policy issues. Turkey and the West: From Neutrality to Commitment is his first book and a major work completed within the span of more than a decade.

Research paper thumbnail of Mitlerden Gerçeğe Büyük Savaş - 19. Yüzyıl Emperyalizminde Son Perde

Hiçbir savaşın toplumların ve ülkelerin birdenbire silaha sarılmaya karar vermelerinin sonucu ola... more Hiçbir savaşın toplumların ve ülkelerin birdenbire silaha sarılmaya karar vermelerinin sonucu olamayacağını anlamak güç olmasa gerek. Buna rağmen, geçmişin araştırılmasında siyasi ve askerî tarihe odaklanmaktan fazlasına ilgi gösterilmemesinin nedeni ne olabilir?
1914 yılına kadar Avrupa toplumsal ortamını şekillendiren sanat, bilim ve edebiyat içinde “değersizleştirilen bir şeyler” olduğu, ilginçtir ki hâlen fark edilmeyi bekler gibi. Avrupa imparatorlukları, toplumlarına karşı duygusal bağ taşımayan, hatta çoğu zaman aynı milletten dahi olmayan, evliliklerle akrabalık bağı kuran aristokratlar tarafından yönetiliyor; kilise, güç yarışından eksik olmuyor; seferberlik için düğmeye basıldığında her ülke yekdiğerinden geride ve eksik kalma korkusu ile milyonları bir çırpıda askere alıp cephelere sürebiliyordu. Öyleyse en başta değersizleştirilen “insan”dı.
Kültürel emperyalizm, hakikat tasasını önemsizleştirdiği kitleleri önce düşünmeyi sevmez sonra da düşünemez hâle getirirken kendini olduğundan farklı gösteriyor. Ana akımın kalemleri ise tarihi açıklamaktan çok örtük anlatımın rahatı içinde gözüküyor. Geçmiş, gerçekte sadece kalabalıklaştırılmış sayfalar içinde, âdeta insani olan ne varsa ondan arındırılmış, sonuçta çoğu kişinin “zaten olan olmuş” diyerek bir süre sonra bir benzeri içinde kendini bulduğu bir masala dönüştüğünde payımıza kanıksamalardan daha fazlası düşmeli. Mitler; putlar gibi…insanlığın ilerleyişi önünde, kırılmayı bekliyor.