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Papers by Warren Wood

Groundwater

Informed analysis of policies related to food security, global climate change, wetland ecology, e... more Informed analysis of policies related to food security, global climate change, wetland ecology, environmental nutrient flux, element cycling, groundwater weathering, continental denudation, human health, and others depends to a large extent on quantitative estimates of solute mass fluxes into and out of all global element pools including the enigmatic global aquifer systems. Herein for the first time, we proffer the mean global solute concentration of all major and selected minor and trace solutes in the active groundwater that represents 99% of liquid fresh water on Earth. Concentrations in this significant element pool have yielded to a geospatial machine learning kNN-nearest neighbors' algorithm with numerous geospatial predictors utilizing a large new lithology/climate/aquifer age/elevation based solute database. The predicted concentrations are consistent with traditional solute ratios, concentrations, and thermodynamic saturation indices.

Open-File Report, 1981

Introduction 1 Site description and monitoring techniques 3 Geology Hydrology Analytical methods ... more Introduction 1 Site description and monitoring techniques 3 Geology Hydrology Analytical methods teener a j_ ______ ^/^/ Fluorocarbon-compound analysis Nonvolatile organic-compound analysis March 1977 pumping test March 1978 injection test Hydraulic data 34 Flowmeter logs Water-level data and analysis Sampling schedule and tracer data April 1978 well-redevelopment test May 1978 injection test Hydraulic data Chemical and tracer data Sampling schedule and tracer data August 1978 injection test Hydraulic data Sampling schedule and tracer data 100 December 1978 tracer test 172 References 234 ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 7. Lithologic column from the Stanton, Tex. site with point locations of mineralogical analyses, porosity, and hydraulic-conductivity determinations 8. Sketch of stripping, concentration, and analytical system for fluorocarbons in the nanogram per liter range 9-12. Graphs showing: 9. Variation of input concentration with time of the fluorocarbon bromochlorodifluoromethane during the first tracer experiment, August 8, 1978 10. Variation of input concentration with time of the fluorocarbon dichlorodifluoromethane during the second tracer experiment, August 10-11, 1978 26 11. Variation of input concentration with time of the fluorocarbon dibromodifluoromethane during the third tracer experiment, August 12-13 12, 1978 12. Flowmeter logs from the injection well obtained during the March 1978 test 35 13. Flowmeter logs from the injection well obtained during the May 1978 test 14-38. Graph showing: 14. Change in specific conductance measured in samples from the 2-meter well and point samplers collected May 24-25, 1978 15. Change in specific conductance measured in samples from the 5-meter well and point samplers collected May 24-25, 1978 16. Change in alkalinity measured in samples from the 2-meter well and point samplers collected May 24-25, 1978 75 17. Change in alkalinity measured in samples from the 5-meter well and point samplers collected May 24-25, 1978 76 18. Flowmeter logs from the injection well obtained during the August 7-15, 1978 test 19. Bromide data obtained from the 2-meter well and point samplers during the first experiment of the August 1978 test 20. Bromide data obtained from the 5-meter well and point samplers during the first experiment of the August 1978 test 21. Bromide data obtained from the 10-and 15-meter wells during the first experiment of the August 1978 test 212 22. Bromide data obtained from the 2-, 5-, 10-, and 15-meter wells during the first experiment of the August 1978 test iv ILLUSTRATIONS Continued Page Figure 23. Boron data obtained from the 2-meter well and point samplers during the first experiment of the August 1978 test 214 24. Boron data obtained from the 5-meter well and point samplers during the first experiment of the August 1978 test 25. Boron data obtained from the 10-and 15-meter wells during the first experiment of the August 1978 test 26. Boron data obtained from the 30-meter well and point samplers during the first experiment of the August 1978 test 27. Boron data obtained from the 2-, 5-, 10-, 15-, and 30-meter wells during the first experiment of the August 1978 test 28. Comparison of boron, bromide, and bromochlorodifluoromethane data obtained from the 2-meter well during the first experiment of the August 1978 test 29. Comparison of boron, bromide, and bromochlorodifluoromethane data obtained from the 5-meter well during the first experiment of the August 1978 test 30. Comparison of tracer data obtained from the 2-meter well during the second experiment of the August 1978 test 31. Comparison of bromide, benzoate, and phenolphthalein data obtained from the 2-meter orange point sampler during the second experiment of the August 1978 test 32. Comparison of tracer data from the 5-meter orange point sampler during the second experiment of the August 1978 test 33. Comparison of tracer data from the 2-meter orange point sampler during the third experiment of the August 1978 test 34. Comparison of tracer data from the 5-meter orange point sampler during the third experiment of the August 1978 test 225 35. Comparison of halide tracer data with yeast from the 2-meter well during the fourth experiment (pulse injection) of the August 1978 test 226 36. Comparison of halide tracer data obtained from the 5-meter well during the fourth experiment (pulse injection) of the August 1978 test 227 37. Comparison of halide and yeast tracer data from the 5-meter red piezometer during the fourth experiment pulse injection) of the August 1978 test 38. Comparison of halide tracer data obtained from the 5-meter orange point sampler during the fourth experiment (pulse injection) of the August 1978 test 229 v TABLES Page Table 1. Summary of the tracers used in the four geochemical tests 2. Depth and type of sampling locations 3. Mineralogy of the lithologic column as determined from cores taken from the area adjacent to the injection well 4. Mineralogy of the heavy minerals present in the cores obtained from an area adjacent to the injection well as determined by X-ray diffraction 5. Porosity and hydraulic-conductivity data determined from core samples from an area adjacent to the injection well 6. Transmissivity and storage values computed for the Ogallala aquifer based on data from the March 1977 pumping test 7. Tracer information for March 1978 injection test 8. Injection rates and cumulative volumes for the March 1-2, 1978, injection test 9. Transmissivity and storage values computed for the Ogallala aquifer based on data from the March 1978 injection test 10-21. Data obtained from the first tracer experiment on March 1, 1978, at the Stanton, Tex. site 10. 2-meter well 11. 2-meter black point sampler 12. 2-meter red point sampler 13. 2-meter orange point sampler 14. 2-meter green point sampler 15. 5-meter well 16. 5-meter black point sampler 17. 5-meter orange point sampler 18. 5-meter green point sampler 19. 10-meter well 20. 15-meter well 21. 30-meter well 22-29. Data obtained from the second tracer experiment on March 1, 1978, at the Stanton, Tex. site 22. 2-meter well 23. 2-meter black point sampler 24. 2-meter red point sampler 25. 2-meter orange point sampler 26. 2-meter green point sampler 27. 5-meter well 28. 5-meter black point sampler 29. 5-meter orange point sampler VI TABLES Continued Page Table 30. Injection rates and amounts; Stanton injection test, May 24-25, 1978 31. Analyses of the playa-lake water and ground water prior to the May 24-25, 1978, injection test 72 32. Tracer information for May injection 77 33-43. Data obtained from water samples collected during the May 24-25, 1978, injection test using playa-lake water 33. 2-meter well 34. 2-meter black point sampler 81 35. 2-meter red point sampler 83 36. 2-meter orange point sampler 37. 2-meter green point sampler 38. 5-meter well 39. 5-meter black point sampler 40. 5-meter red point sampler 93 41. 5-meter orange point sampler 42. 10-meter point sampler 97 43. 15-meter point sampler 44. Cumulative volume of water injected after selected times during the August 1978 injection test 45. Tracer information for the August 1978 test 46. Analysis of the ground water used during the August 1978 tracer test 103 47-60. Data obtained from the tracer experiments conducted during August 8-15, 1978, at the Stanton, Tex. site 47. 2-meter well 48. 2-meter black point sampler 49. 2-meter red point sampler 50. 2-meter orange point sampler 51. 5-meter well 52. 5-meter black point sampler 140 53. 5-meter red point sampler 54. 5-meter orange point sampler 55. 10-meter well 56. 15-meter well 57. 30-meter well 58. 30-meter black point sampler 59. 30-meter red point sampler 60. 30-meter orange point sampler 61-66. Comparison between all tracers used during the second tracer experiment written in terms of the unitless concentration ratio C/Co 61. 2-meter well 62. 2-meter red point sampler 63. 2-meter orange point sampler VI1 TABLES Continued Page Table 64. 5-meter well 65. 5-meter orange point sampler 66. 15-meter well 67-74. Comparison between all tracers used during the third tracer experiment written in terms of the unitless concentration ratio C/Co 67. 2-meter well 68. 2-meter red point sampler 69. 2-meter orange point sampler 70. 5-meter well 71. 5-meter red point well 72. 5-meter orange point sampler 73. 10-meter well 74. 15-meter well 75-82. Comparison between all tracers used during the fourth tracer experiment (began 1200, August 14, 1978) and the fifth tracer experiment (began 1000, August 15, 1978) 75. 2-meter well 76. 2-meter black point sampler 77. 2-meter red point sampler 78. 2-meter orange point sampler 79. 5-meter well 80. 5-meter red point sampler 81. 5-meter orange point sampler 82. 5-meter black point sampler 83. Injection rates and cumulative volumes for the December 1978 two-well tracer test 84. Chemical data from the two-well tracer test conducted during December 1978 at the Stanton, Tex.

Ground Water, 2008

first half of the year and a small increase in the second half. If we assume that the increase in... more first half of the year and a small increase in the second half. If we assume that the increase in cases in the second half of the year is not associated with drinking water, the benefit of the intervention is 905 reported cases per year (the average reduction in the first half of the year). Not all cases of cryptosporidiosis in the community are reported to national surveillance, and the ratio of reported to community cases is estimated to be 7.4 (11). This multiplier has uncertainties because it is based upon a single study. If this multiplier is applied to our estimate of 905 cases, it implies 6,770 fewer cases of cryptosporidiosis in the community each year. Two recent reports have suggested that even this multiplier may be an underestimate (12,13). We have presented evidence that new drinking water regulations implemented in England and Wales during 2000 led to significantly fewer cryptosporidiosis cases in the first half of the year with no significant change in the second half of the year. We estimate a reduction in reported cases of 905 per year or ≈6,770 cases in the community each year. These findings indicate that regulations such as those implemented in England and Wales can have a significant public health benefit in reducing cases of cryptosporidiosis.

Computational Nanorobotics: Agricultural and Environmental Perspectives

…, 2003

Earth's Future, 2017

Quantifying the annual flux of CO2 (carbon dioxide) and equivalent emissions to the atmosphere is... more Quantifying the annual flux of CO2 (carbon dioxide) and equivalent emissions to the atmosphere is critical for both policy decisions and modeling of future climate change. Given the importance of greenhouse gas emissions to climate change and a recognized mismatch between sources and sinks (e.g., Liu & Dreybrodt, 2015), it is important to quantify these parameters. A significant and previously unrecognized CO2 contribution arises from groundwater depletion (net removal from storage). The average annual 1.7 MMT (million metric tons) CO2 released in the United States from this source is greater than approximately one third of the 23 major sources reported by the US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) to the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; US EPA, ).

Guidelines for collection and field analysis of ground-water samples for selected unstable constituents

Open-File Report, 1976

... Section D is on water quality. The unit of publication, the chapter, is limited to a narrow f... more ... Section D is on water quality. The unit of publication, the chapter, is limited to a narrow field of subject matter. This format permits flexibility in revision and publication as the need arises. "Guidelines for Collection and Field Analysis of Ground-water Samples for Selected ...

Hydrology, 2020

Sabkha Matti is the largest inland sabkha (2950 km2) in the Arabian Peninsula. The drainage area ... more Sabkha Matti is the largest inland sabkha (2950 km2) in the Arabian Peninsula. The drainage area supporting this sabkha is >250,000 km2 and is the discharge point for part of the ten thousand meter thick regional groundwater systems ranging in age from Precambrian through Miocene in the Rub’ al Khali structural basin. A hydrologic budget was constructed for this sabkha, where water fluxes were calculated on the basis of hydraulic gradient and conductivities measured in both shallow and deep wells. The evaporation rates from the surface of the sabkha were estimated from the published data and indicate that almost all the annual rainfall is lost by surface evaporation. The water flux multiplied by its solute concentration showed that nearly all the solutes in the sabkha were derived by upward leakage from the underlying regional aquifers rather than the weathering of the aquifer framework, from precipitation, or from other sources. Steady-state estimates within a rectilinear contro...

The Tri-County region, consisting of Clinton, Eaton, and Ingham Counties, is an area of 1,697 squ... more The Tri-County region, consisting of Clinton, Eaton, and Ingham Counties, is an area of 1,697 square miles in Michigan's Lower Peninsula and has as its hub the Lansing metropolitan area. The land surface ranges in altitude from about 700 to about 1,000 feet. The region receives an average of about 31 inches of precipitation each year. The population is nearing 400,000 and by 1990 will be near 600,000. Average daily water UEe is slightly more than 30 million gallons today; by 1980 it will be abc.ut 50 million gallons, and by 1990 it will probably be about 70 million gallons. The Tri-County region is drained by s•even river systems. The median annual 7-day mean low flows of the principal streams in these systems were measured at the point farthest downstream within the region. These values, in cubic feet per second, are as follows: Grand River, 180; Maple River, 34; Looking Glass River, 28; Red Cedar River, 30; Portage Creek, 15; Battle Creek, 20; and Thornapple River, 24-a total of 331 cubic feet per second or about 220 million gallons per day. The areal variance in 7-day low-flow runoff ranges from 0 to 0.15 cubic foot per second per square mile. The principal source of ground water in the Tri-County region is a complex aquifer system compos.ed of the Saginaw and Grand River Formations and some of the overlying glacial sediments. This aquifer yields between 300 and 700 gallons per minute to individual wells in much of the western half of Ingham County, in the eastern half of Clinton County, in a small area in southeastern Clinton County, and in northeastern Eaton County. In some parts of the region, the glacial sediments are favorable for development of moderate to large supplies of water. Minor aquifers in the region are the Bayport, Michigan, and Marshall Formations. Providing water supplies in the future requires complete and comprehensive water-management programs. Such management programs involve determining which of several alternative water-development systems is the best. Some of the chief factors and methods that must be considered when planning these systems are combined use of ground and surface water, artificial recharge, treatment of wastes, use of storage reservoirs, and importation of water from the Great Lakes.

Professional Paper, 1988

The Regional Aquifer-System Analysis (RASA) Program was started in 1978 following a congressional... more The Regional Aquifer-System Analysis (RASA) Program was started in 1978 following a congressional mandate to develop quantitative appraisals of the major groundwater systems of the United States. The RASA Program represents a systematic effort to study a number of the Nation's most important aquifer systems, which in aggregate underlie much of the country and which represent an important component of the Nation's total water supply. In general, the boundaries of these studies are identified by the hydrologic extent of each system and accordingly transcend the political subdivisions to which investigations have often arbitrarily been limited in the past. The broad objective for each study is to assemble geologic, hydrologic, and geochemical information, to analyze and develop an understanding of the system, and to develop predictive capabilities that will contribute to the effective management of the system. The use of computer simulation is an important element of the RASA studies, both to develop an understanding of the natural, undisturbed hydrologic system and the changes brought about in it by human activities, and to provide a means of predicting the regional effects of future pumping or other stresses. The final interpretive results of the RASA Program are presented in a series of U.S. Geological Survey Professional Papers that describe the geology, hydrology, and geochemistry of each regional aquifer system. Each study within the RASA Program is assigned a single Professional Paper number, and where the volume of interpretive material warrants, separate topical chapters that consider the principal elements of the investigation may be published. The series of RASA interpretive reports begins with Professional Paper 1400 and thereafter will continue in numerical sequence as the interpretive products of subsequent studies become available.

Circular, 1970

Milligrams per liter (mg/1). A unit for expressing the concentration of chemical c':lnstituents b... more Milligrams per liter (mg/1). A unit for expressing the concentration of chemical c':lnstituents by weight per unit of volume. It is numerically equal to parts per milF0n (ppm) in the analyses used in this publication. pH. A measure of the hydrogen-ion concentration of a solution. A pH unit is expressed as the negative log 10 of the hydrogen-ion concentration. The pH of pnre water is 7; acid water has a smaller pH and alkaline water a larger pH. Specific conductance. A measure of the ability of a water to conduct an electrical current. It is expressed in micromhos per centimeter at 25°C. Pure water has a very small electrical conductance, but the conductance increases with increas~ng concentration of dissolved minerals.

Developments in Water Science, 2003

Examination of an aquifer system in the Liwa Crescent/ Bu Hasa area of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi o... more Examination of an aquifer system in the Liwa Crescent/ Bu Hasa area of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi on the southeastern edge of the Rub al Khali, Arabian sub-continent, provides insight into the timing of groundwater recharge and the origin and evolution of solutes in a representative hyperarid area. Groundwater flow in the aquifer system is radially outward from the center of two groundwater mounds, corresponding to two 110 m-thick sand deposits. The isotopic data from ancient ground waters from the Liwa Oasis with its unusual "d" (deuterium excess) of approximately-15 indicate that Holocene moisture derived from previously evaporated water on the surface of the Indian Ocean rather than from the Mediterranean/Arabian Gulf. Such a source is consistent with a summer monsoonal circulation. Hydraulic heads in underlying aquifers are lower than those of the Liwa/ Bu Hasa aquifer; thus, there is no advective water or solute input from these lower units. Solute diffusion from underlying aquifers provides a small solute flux, but it is inadequate to account for the observed solute mass, nor is the ionic ratio consistent with this source. There are no laterally adjacent aquifers; thus, there is no influx of solutes from these sources. Dissolution of the aquifer framework provides for only a minor fraction of most of the observed solutes. Most solutes in this aquifer system are derived from atmospheric precipitation. Salts contained in rain were stored on the surface and in the unsaturated zone during the hyperarid time interval between the ends of the Pleistocene recharge event (26,000 years BP) and the beginning of the Holocene recharge (9000 years BP). During the Holocene recharge era (9000 to 6000 years BP), these stored salts were mobilized and transported to the ground water. The initial solute distribution has been slightly modified as the solutes and water were transported along the flow path. As ground water moves away from the apex of the mound, it encounters a series of interdunal sabkhat. Water is evaporated from the sabkhat leaving soluble chloride and nitrate minerals on the surface and retrograde carbonate and sulfate minerals in the unsaturated zone. When recharge occurs through the interdunal sabkhat, which are the only areas of recharge in the aquifer, soluble salts on the surface, modern 14 C, and tritium are added to the aquifer. There is vertical mixing within the aquifer because the density of the recharged water is greater than the density of the ground water in this nearly homogeneous and isotropic aquifer. Relatively insoluble carbonate and sulfate minerals are retained in the unsaturated zone of the interdunal sabkhat, causing a change in the solute ratios downgradient. Only the portion of the aquifer not associated with interdunal sabkhat retains the original solute composition determined by mobilization of stored salts. These findings, although specific to this aquifer, provide a useful model by which to evaluate other aquifer systems in hyperarid environments.

Open-File Report, 2013

Radiochemical isotopic characteristics of groundwater collected from selected wells, a seep, and ... more Radiochemical isotopic characteristics of groundwater collected from selected wells, a seep, and a spring in the Mirror Lake watershed, New Hampshire, for radon, radium 226, radium 228, uranium U-234/U-235/U-238 (speciation method), uranium-234 (alpha method), uranium-235 (alpha method), uranium-238 (apha method), uranium in milligrams per lliter, and tritium ..

Quaternary Research, 2002

Springs in the 40 to 50 large lake basins (>15 km2) on the southern portion of the Southern Hi... more Springs in the 40 to 50 large lake basins (>15 km2) on the southern portion of the Southern High Plains (SHP) were active during periods of aridity in the Holocene when there may have been human habitation of the area. Eolian erosion of the lake floors and lunette accretion occurred as groundwater levels declined in response to decreased groundwater recharge. The declining lake floor associated with eolian erosion allowed groundwater evaporative discharge to continue, thus maintaining a groundwater gradient toward the lake. This hydrologic condition was favorable for a relatively continuous spring discharge to the lake, independent of the elevation of the lake floor. To evaluate the postulated dynamic equilibrium critical to this conclusion, 17 optically stimulated ages were determined from a 17.7-m deep core of a lunette adjacent to Double Lakes, Texas (33°13′15″N, 101°54′08″W). The core yielded sediment accumulation dates of 11,500±1100, 6500±700, and 4900±500 yr B.P., correspo...

Quaternary Research, 2012

The coastline along the southern Arabian Gulf between Al Jubail, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and Dub... more The coastline along the southern Arabian Gulf between Al Jubail, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and Dubai, UAE, appears to have risen at least 125 m in the last 18,000 years. Dating and topographic surveying of paleo-dunes (43–53 ka), paleo-marine terraces (17–30 ka), and paleo-marine shorelines (3.3–5.5 ka) document a rapid, > 1 mm/a subsidence, followed by a 6 mm/a uplift that is decreasing with time. The mechanism causing this movement remains elusive but may be related to the translation of the coastal area through the backbasin to forebulge hinge line movement of the Arabian plate or, alternatively, by movement of the underlying Infracambrian-age Hormuz salt in response to sea-level changes associated with continental glaciation. Independent of the mechanism, rapid and episodic uplift may impact the design of engineering projects such as nuclear power plants, airports, and artificial islands as well as the interpretation of sedimentation and archeology of the area.

Journal of Hydrology, 1996

The chloride mass-balance method, which integrates time and aerial distribution of ground water r... more The chloride mass-balance method, which integrates time and aerial distribution of ground water recharge, was applied to small alluvial aquifers in the wadi systems of the Asir and Hijaz mountains in western Saudi Arabia. This application is an extension of the method shown to be suitable for estimating recharge in regional aquifers in semi-arid areas. Because the method integrates recharge in time and space it appears to be, with certain assumptions, particularly well suited for and areas with large temporal and spatial variation in recharge. In general, recharge was found to be between 3 to 4% of precipitation-a range consistent with recharge rates found in other arid and semi-arid areas of the earth.

The Response of Playa and Sabkha Hydraulics and Mineralogy to Climate Forcing

Ground Water, 2006

Natural free convection in porous media: First field documentation in groundwater

Geophysical Research Letters, 2009

Applied Geochemistry, 2008

This study presents results on the fluid and salt chemistry for the Makgadikgadi, a substantial c... more This study presents results on the fluid and salt chemistry for the Makgadikgadi, a substantial continental basin in the semi-arid Kalahari. The aims of the study are to improve understanding of the hydrology of such a system and to identify the sources of the solutes and the controls on their cycling within pans. Sampling took place against the backdrop of unusually severe flooding as well as significant anthropogenic extraction of subsurface brines. This paper examines in particular the relationship between the chemistry of soil leachates, fresh stream water, salty lake water, surface salts and subsurface brines at Sua Pan, Botswana with the aim of improving the understanding of the system's hydrology. Occasionally during the short wet season (December-March) surface water enters the saline environment and precipitates mostly calcite and halite, as well as dolomite and traces of other salts associated with the desiccation of the lake. The hypersaline subsurface brine (up to TDS 190,000 mg/L) is homogenous with minor variations due to pumping by BotAsh mine (Botswana Ash (Pty) Ltd.), which extracts 2400 m 3 of brine/h from a depth of 38 m. Notable is the decrease in TDS as the pumping rate increases which may be indicative of subsurface recharge by less saline water. Isotope chemistry for Sr (87 Sr/ 86 Sr average 0.722087) and S (d 34 S average 34.35) suggests subsurface brines have been subject to a lithological contribution of undetermined origin. Recharge of the subsurface brine from surface water including the Nata River appears to be negligible.