Yrjö Kaukiainen - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Yrjö Kaukiainen

The American Historical Review, Oct 1, 1994

Introduction - An Island at the Rim of Europe Prelude - Finnish Shipping in the Shade of Hanseati... more Introduction - An Island at the Rim of Europe Prelude - Finnish Shipping in the Shade of Hanseatic Dominion Second Prelude - The Time of Stockholm Tar Widening Horizons Pre-industrial Maritime Economy (1809-c.1875) From Golden Time to Twighlight (1875-1914) From Sailing Vessels to Second-Hand Steamers From Low-Cost to High-Cost Shipping (World War II to the present).

Liverpool University Press eBooks, 2004

3It is illustrative of the consensus that the best-known guide to sources in maritime history, Ro... more 3It is illustrative of the consensus that the best-known guide to sources in maritime history, Robert G. Albion (cornp.), Naval and Maritime History: An Annotated Bibliography (4th rev. ed., Mystic, CT, 1972), fails to include measurement as a subject. 4T he following employees and former employees of the Finnish National Board of Navigation agreed to be interviewed for this article: Councillor Heikki Valkonen; former Councillor Oso Siivonen: Inspector Anders Fabritius; and former Inspector Ake Wiberg.

Liverpool University Press eBooks, Mar 21, 2018

Liverpool University Press eBooks, 2004

This chapter presents the environment of the Finnish shipping market in the years 1750 to 1870. I... more This chapter presents the environment of the Finnish shipping market in the years 1750 to 1870. It details the demand of maritime labour as a result of expansion in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and provides an insight into the working conditions of those labourers. The chapter also describes the integration of the Finnish maritime labour market with the international maritime world, in particular Finnish sailors’ involvement with the international labour market.

Liverpool University Press eBooks, Mar 21, 2018

Liverpool University Press eBooks, Mar 21, 2018

It is commonly believed that not much happened in the transmission of information before the intr... more It is commonly believed that not much happened in the transmission of information before the introduction of the electric telegraph. This article, however, argues that this was not the case, that quite a substantial improvement in the speed of information transmission had already taken place a few decades before this technical breakthrough. Between  and , global dispatch times diminished remarkably, on average to about a third of what they had been around . This implies that on most routes the improvement during these three decades amounted to more saved days than was achieved after the introduction of the electric telegraph. The development can be described as an evolution which started in Europe in the s and was diffused gradually all over the world. The first transcontinental communications to benefit were those across the North Atlantic and to the Far East, with South America, Africa and Australia clearly trailing behind. The 'take-off' was initially connected with the introduction of steamships on coastal or short sea routes and subsequently on increasingly long ocean voyages. However, even traditional overland mail-coach connections improved as also did sailing-ship ('packet') connections over the North Atlantic until the late s. It was only in the late s and s that railways started to shrink distances within Continental Europe.

Northern Mariner, Jul 1, 1996

In Jack in Port, Judith Fingard painted a vivid description of what she called "the demise of sai... more In Jack in Port, Judith Fingard painted a vivid description of what she called "the demise of sailortown." Life in port cities, she claimed, underwent a profound change during the nineteenth century. The seamen of the 1820s, 1830s and 1840s still enjoyed "the unhurried pace of the pre-industrial age" which "meant that sailors' visits to port were sufficiently lengthy to enable them to make a significant contribution to both the economy and the character of sailortown." Yet the following generation, sailing in the 1850s, 1860s and 1870s (when "the opportunities for seafaring grew by leaps and bounds") experienced an increase in the tempo of shipping which, among other things, shortened stays in ports. But the greatest changes came at the end of the century: "The third generation sailor, active in the last quarter of the century, belonged to a dying occupation... [when] the short stopovers characteristic of the new pace of commerce allowed the sailor little time to go ashore...As a result the late 1890s saw the demise of sailortown." 1 While this description is doubtless true for the principal seaports of Atlantic Canada, it is important to remember that international ports have continued to change rapidly even after "the demise of sailortown." Indeed, present-day ports have little in common with even the most developed harbours of a century ago. Moreover, the scale and scope of the change have been different in various parts of the world as well as disparate types of ports. It is clear, however, that Fingard has underscored a fundamental change which has been equally important during this century: the shortening of time in port. While mid-nineteenth century sailing vessels spent weeks or even months in port, typical turnaround times for modern ships are now counted in hours. Accordingly, the presence of sailors has diminished even in traditional "steamer ports." While the general picture is clear enough, it is not easy to find relevant data on the actual speed and magnitude of the change. While there are some good local data on turnaround times, such as those published by the Atlantic Canada Shipping Project, systematic statistics covering longer spans of time are the exception. Moreover, quantitative data on time in ports are far from sufficient to understand how the profound transformation of shipping has affected ports and port cities. We also need to know how often sailors were allowed to leave the ship, how long they were allowed ashore, and how much money they were able to spend while there. Moreover, we should also remember that although sailors were the most characteristic of all portside elements, they were not

Liverpool University Press eBooks, 2004

This chapter notes the difficulties in comprehending the historical development of labour markets... more This chapter notes the difficulties in comprehending the historical development of labour markets in purely neo-classical terms and questions the enrolment and wage procedures of the Finnish maritime labour markets. It also discusses the integration inside the network of connected local maritime labour markets in the Age of Sail and describes the differences between commodity and labour markets. The chapter concludes with a reference to the aftermath of the First World War, and foregrounds the idea of a less international maritime labour market.

Viipurin Suomalaisen Kirjallisuusseuran toimitteita

Liverpool University Press eBooks, 2004

<p>This chapter describes Finland's transition from sail to steam and assesses and comp... more <p>This chapter describes Finland's transition from sail to steam and assesses and compares the competition between the two modes of transport. It largely focuses on the cost accrued for each trade, and provides useful statistics on costs concerned with operating, capital, fuel, freight rates and labour.</p>

Liverpool University Press eBooks, Mar 21, 2018

The International Journal of Maritime History, Jun 1, 2003

explorers had the misfortune to comefromthe nationthatproduced Hitler,and in parttheir relative o... more explorers had the misfortune to comefromthe nationthatproduced Hitler,and in parttheir relative obscurity is his legacy." [211]This,surely, isa simplistic andnarrowviewto adopt. As for the graphic, cartographic, and photographic dimension of the book, it mustbe said thatthis isso absolutely poor,andsometimes sowrong, thatto havehadnothingat allwould have been better. Nevertheless, anddespite suchshortcomings, Murphyprovides a goodaccountof German polar research, one that I enjoyed reading, and which I think otherswill as well, both for enjoyment and for goodbenefit.

The International Journal of Maritime History, Dec 1, 2011

The International Journal of Maritime History, Aug 1, 2021

Since the late sixteenth century, parallel with the growth of West-European ocean shipping, seabo... more Since the late sixteenth century, parallel with the growth of West-European ocean shipping, seaborne connections between the North and Baltic seas increased constantly. The rising maritime powers, the Dutch Republic and Great Britain, carried to the Baltic colonial and manufacturing produce in exchange for grain and raw materials, thus connecting the area with their oceanic trades. These commodity flows are amply illuminated by the Sound Toll records. In contrast, evidence of intra-Baltic shipping is fragmentary and imperfect, with many gaps. Such an imbalance of sources implies a drawback: we do not know how dominant the West-European connections actually were in Baltic shipping. Fortunately, there are a few primary records that shed light on intra-Baltic shipping, notably the ship-lists of the port of Cronstadt published by the Russian and German-language journal Sankt Peterburgskije Vedomosti/St. Petersburgische Zeitung from 1744. The port of Cronstadt is particularly interesting as it constitutes the extreme eastern terminus of sea routes from the wider world. No comprehensive data from these shiplists have hitherto been published. Utilising them, this article analyses the main trends in the development of St. Petersburg's shipping connections within the Baltic Sea as well as with the regions beyond the Danish Sound.

Liverpool University Press eBooks, 2004

This chapter provides a study on The Swedish Navigation Act, and offers an explanation on why Swe... more This chapter provides a study on The Swedish Navigation Act, and offers an explanation on why Sweden wanted to limit the number of foreign ships’ exports and imports. The chapter later details the economic reaction to the act’s prohibitions and requirements, namely the impact the act had on Finland and what it meant for the imports of tobacco, sugar, salt and other colonial goods.

Liverpool University Press eBooks, Dec 1, 1998

This chapter challenges the assumption that international freight markets were not possible until... more This chapter challenges the assumption that international freight markets were not possible until the advent of steam shipping and telegraph communication, instead arguing that much of the framework was developed during the age of sail. It accomplishes this by examining the everyday business practices of freight markers during the 1830s and 1840s, particularly the source material from the life and records of Finnish shipowner, Peter Malm Jr. The analysis of his records shows that shipping efficiency did improve during the period, through an increased speed of communication, integration of freight and commodity markets, and a decrease in time spent in docks (demonstrating an improvement in cargo handling). However, the author notes that Malm’s successes were typical or atypical, and may not be fully representative of the industry.

The International Journal of Maritime History, Jun 1, 1995

3It is illustrative of the consensus that the best-known guide to sources in maritime history, Ro... more 3It is illustrative of the consensus that the best-known guide to sources in maritime history, Robert G. Albion (cornp.), Naval and Maritime History: An Annotated Bibliography (4th rev. ed., Mystic, CT, 1972), fails to include measurement as a subject. 4T he following employees and former employees of the Finnish National Board of Navigation agreed to be interviewed for this article: Councillor Heikki Valkonen; former Councillor Oso Siivonen: Inspector Anders Fabritius; and former Inspector Ake Wiberg.

The International Journal of Maritime History, Dec 1, 2009

In his comprehensive volume on maritime economics, Martin Stopford interprets the spectacular dev... more In his comprehensive volume on maritime economics, Martin Stopford interprets the spectacular development of global shipping after the Second World War as a process dominated by two technical revolutions.' The first, at least chronologically, was the "bulk shipping revolution" of the 1960s and 1970s. The core of this transformation consisted of a rapid growth in vessel size and the development of high-speed cargo-handling systems. These developments improved the efficiency of shipping and reduced the cost of transporting raw materials by sea to such an extent that the markets for goods such as crude oil, coal and iron ore became truly global. The second and "most important" revolution according to Stopford and others entailed the "unitization of liner shipping," the so-called "container revolution." By replacing the perplexing variety of packages in which various finished and semi-finished products were stowed on the tweendecks of liners with a standard-size steel container, loading and unloading times were shortened from weeks to hours, and the same containers could also be reloaded onto trucks or trains. Moreover, a sturdy and sealable steel box diminished the risks of both damage at sea and pilferage in ports. Ultimately, even the logistical control of commodity flows was revolutionized by modern computer technology. Although this was not part of the original innovation, the handling and redistribution of the huge contemporary volumes of containers, sent by an almost infinite number of shippers, could not be managed by traditional tallying and marking methods. Thus, it is easy to understand why the container revolution has been regarded by scholars and businessmen alike as a key factor in the recent growth of international trade.

The International Journal of Maritime History, Dec 1, 2006

It is well known that ocean freights declined dramatically in the nineteenth century, especially ... more It is well known that ocean freights declined dramatically in the nineteenth century, especially after 1875, when steamships started to take over the most important ocean routes. This trend further continued in the twentieth century. As Douglass C. North has shown, around 1820 freight costs, depending upon commodity and distance, amounted to between fifteen and thirty percent of import (cit) prices. By contrast, in the 1990s the "freight ratio" in the trade of most developed countries amounted to a mere three to five percent. 2 A decline of such proportions must have had a powerful impact on global trade. In the late 1930s, L. Isserlis charted the "first stage" of this transformation in his well-known study of "tramp" freights from 1869 to 1936.3 Subsequently, his findings for the pre-World War I period have been amplified upon by scholars such as Douglass C. North, C. Knick Harley, Lewis R. Fischer and Helge W. Nordvik. The most recent contribution is an article by Saif I. Shah Mohammed and Jeffrey G. Williamson which re-examines Isser-

Liverpool University Press eBooks, Mar 21, 2018

The American Historical Review, Oct 1, 1994

Introduction - An Island at the Rim of Europe Prelude - Finnish Shipping in the Shade of Hanseati... more Introduction - An Island at the Rim of Europe Prelude - Finnish Shipping in the Shade of Hanseatic Dominion Second Prelude - The Time of Stockholm Tar Widening Horizons Pre-industrial Maritime Economy (1809-c.1875) From Golden Time to Twighlight (1875-1914) From Sailing Vessels to Second-Hand Steamers From Low-Cost to High-Cost Shipping (World War II to the present).

Liverpool University Press eBooks, 2004

3It is illustrative of the consensus that the best-known guide to sources in maritime history, Ro... more 3It is illustrative of the consensus that the best-known guide to sources in maritime history, Robert G. Albion (cornp.), Naval and Maritime History: An Annotated Bibliography (4th rev. ed., Mystic, CT, 1972), fails to include measurement as a subject. 4T he following employees and former employees of the Finnish National Board of Navigation agreed to be interviewed for this article: Councillor Heikki Valkonen; former Councillor Oso Siivonen: Inspector Anders Fabritius; and former Inspector Ake Wiberg.

Liverpool University Press eBooks, Mar 21, 2018

Liverpool University Press eBooks, 2004

This chapter presents the environment of the Finnish shipping market in the years 1750 to 1870. I... more This chapter presents the environment of the Finnish shipping market in the years 1750 to 1870. It details the demand of maritime labour as a result of expansion in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and provides an insight into the working conditions of those labourers. The chapter also describes the integration of the Finnish maritime labour market with the international maritime world, in particular Finnish sailors’ involvement with the international labour market.

Liverpool University Press eBooks, Mar 21, 2018

Liverpool University Press eBooks, Mar 21, 2018

It is commonly believed that not much happened in the transmission of information before the intr... more It is commonly believed that not much happened in the transmission of information before the introduction of the electric telegraph. This article, however, argues that this was not the case, that quite a substantial improvement in the speed of information transmission had already taken place a few decades before this technical breakthrough. Between  and , global dispatch times diminished remarkably, on average to about a third of what they had been around . This implies that on most routes the improvement during these three decades amounted to more saved days than was achieved after the introduction of the electric telegraph. The development can be described as an evolution which started in Europe in the s and was diffused gradually all over the world. The first transcontinental communications to benefit were those across the North Atlantic and to the Far East, with South America, Africa and Australia clearly trailing behind. The 'take-off' was initially connected with the introduction of steamships on coastal or short sea routes and subsequently on increasingly long ocean voyages. However, even traditional overland mail-coach connections improved as also did sailing-ship ('packet') connections over the North Atlantic until the late s. It was only in the late s and s that railways started to shrink distances within Continental Europe.

Northern Mariner, Jul 1, 1996

In Jack in Port, Judith Fingard painted a vivid description of what she called "the demise of sai... more In Jack in Port, Judith Fingard painted a vivid description of what she called "the demise of sailortown." Life in port cities, she claimed, underwent a profound change during the nineteenth century. The seamen of the 1820s, 1830s and 1840s still enjoyed "the unhurried pace of the pre-industrial age" which "meant that sailors' visits to port were sufficiently lengthy to enable them to make a significant contribution to both the economy and the character of sailortown." Yet the following generation, sailing in the 1850s, 1860s and 1870s (when "the opportunities for seafaring grew by leaps and bounds") experienced an increase in the tempo of shipping which, among other things, shortened stays in ports. But the greatest changes came at the end of the century: "The third generation sailor, active in the last quarter of the century, belonged to a dying occupation... [when] the short stopovers characteristic of the new pace of commerce allowed the sailor little time to go ashore...As a result the late 1890s saw the demise of sailortown." 1 While this description is doubtless true for the principal seaports of Atlantic Canada, it is important to remember that international ports have continued to change rapidly even after "the demise of sailortown." Indeed, present-day ports have little in common with even the most developed harbours of a century ago. Moreover, the scale and scope of the change have been different in various parts of the world as well as disparate types of ports. It is clear, however, that Fingard has underscored a fundamental change which has been equally important during this century: the shortening of time in port. While mid-nineteenth century sailing vessels spent weeks or even months in port, typical turnaround times for modern ships are now counted in hours. Accordingly, the presence of sailors has diminished even in traditional "steamer ports." While the general picture is clear enough, it is not easy to find relevant data on the actual speed and magnitude of the change. While there are some good local data on turnaround times, such as those published by the Atlantic Canada Shipping Project, systematic statistics covering longer spans of time are the exception. Moreover, quantitative data on time in ports are far from sufficient to understand how the profound transformation of shipping has affected ports and port cities. We also need to know how often sailors were allowed to leave the ship, how long they were allowed ashore, and how much money they were able to spend while there. Moreover, we should also remember that although sailors were the most characteristic of all portside elements, they were not

Liverpool University Press eBooks, 2004

This chapter notes the difficulties in comprehending the historical development of labour markets... more This chapter notes the difficulties in comprehending the historical development of labour markets in purely neo-classical terms and questions the enrolment and wage procedures of the Finnish maritime labour markets. It also discusses the integration inside the network of connected local maritime labour markets in the Age of Sail and describes the differences between commodity and labour markets. The chapter concludes with a reference to the aftermath of the First World War, and foregrounds the idea of a less international maritime labour market.

Viipurin Suomalaisen Kirjallisuusseuran toimitteita

Liverpool University Press eBooks, 2004

<p>This chapter describes Finland's transition from sail to steam and assesses and comp... more <p>This chapter describes Finland's transition from sail to steam and assesses and compares the competition between the two modes of transport. It largely focuses on the cost accrued for each trade, and provides useful statistics on costs concerned with operating, capital, fuel, freight rates and labour.</p>

Liverpool University Press eBooks, Mar 21, 2018

The International Journal of Maritime History, Jun 1, 2003

explorers had the misfortune to comefromthe nationthatproduced Hitler,and in parttheir relative o... more explorers had the misfortune to comefromthe nationthatproduced Hitler,and in parttheir relative obscurity is his legacy." [211]This,surely, isa simplistic andnarrowviewto adopt. As for the graphic, cartographic, and photographic dimension of the book, it mustbe said thatthis isso absolutely poor,andsometimes sowrong, thatto havehadnothingat allwould have been better. Nevertheless, anddespite suchshortcomings, Murphyprovides a goodaccountof German polar research, one that I enjoyed reading, and which I think otherswill as well, both for enjoyment and for goodbenefit.

The International Journal of Maritime History, Dec 1, 2011

The International Journal of Maritime History, Aug 1, 2021

Since the late sixteenth century, parallel with the growth of West-European ocean shipping, seabo... more Since the late sixteenth century, parallel with the growth of West-European ocean shipping, seaborne connections between the North and Baltic seas increased constantly. The rising maritime powers, the Dutch Republic and Great Britain, carried to the Baltic colonial and manufacturing produce in exchange for grain and raw materials, thus connecting the area with their oceanic trades. These commodity flows are amply illuminated by the Sound Toll records. In contrast, evidence of intra-Baltic shipping is fragmentary and imperfect, with many gaps. Such an imbalance of sources implies a drawback: we do not know how dominant the West-European connections actually were in Baltic shipping. Fortunately, there are a few primary records that shed light on intra-Baltic shipping, notably the ship-lists of the port of Cronstadt published by the Russian and German-language journal Sankt Peterburgskije Vedomosti/St. Petersburgische Zeitung from 1744. The port of Cronstadt is particularly interesting as it constitutes the extreme eastern terminus of sea routes from the wider world. No comprehensive data from these shiplists have hitherto been published. Utilising them, this article analyses the main trends in the development of St. Petersburg's shipping connections within the Baltic Sea as well as with the regions beyond the Danish Sound.

Liverpool University Press eBooks, 2004

This chapter provides a study on The Swedish Navigation Act, and offers an explanation on why Swe... more This chapter provides a study on The Swedish Navigation Act, and offers an explanation on why Sweden wanted to limit the number of foreign ships’ exports and imports. The chapter later details the economic reaction to the act’s prohibitions and requirements, namely the impact the act had on Finland and what it meant for the imports of tobacco, sugar, salt and other colonial goods.

Liverpool University Press eBooks, Dec 1, 1998

This chapter challenges the assumption that international freight markets were not possible until... more This chapter challenges the assumption that international freight markets were not possible until the advent of steam shipping and telegraph communication, instead arguing that much of the framework was developed during the age of sail. It accomplishes this by examining the everyday business practices of freight markers during the 1830s and 1840s, particularly the source material from the life and records of Finnish shipowner, Peter Malm Jr. The analysis of his records shows that shipping efficiency did improve during the period, through an increased speed of communication, integration of freight and commodity markets, and a decrease in time spent in docks (demonstrating an improvement in cargo handling). However, the author notes that Malm’s successes were typical or atypical, and may not be fully representative of the industry.

The International Journal of Maritime History, Jun 1, 1995

3It is illustrative of the consensus that the best-known guide to sources in maritime history, Ro... more 3It is illustrative of the consensus that the best-known guide to sources in maritime history, Robert G. Albion (cornp.), Naval and Maritime History: An Annotated Bibliography (4th rev. ed., Mystic, CT, 1972), fails to include measurement as a subject. 4T he following employees and former employees of the Finnish National Board of Navigation agreed to be interviewed for this article: Councillor Heikki Valkonen; former Councillor Oso Siivonen: Inspector Anders Fabritius; and former Inspector Ake Wiberg.

The International Journal of Maritime History, Dec 1, 2009

In his comprehensive volume on maritime economics, Martin Stopford interprets the spectacular dev... more In his comprehensive volume on maritime economics, Martin Stopford interprets the spectacular development of global shipping after the Second World War as a process dominated by two technical revolutions.' The first, at least chronologically, was the "bulk shipping revolution" of the 1960s and 1970s. The core of this transformation consisted of a rapid growth in vessel size and the development of high-speed cargo-handling systems. These developments improved the efficiency of shipping and reduced the cost of transporting raw materials by sea to such an extent that the markets for goods such as crude oil, coal and iron ore became truly global. The second and "most important" revolution according to Stopford and others entailed the "unitization of liner shipping," the so-called "container revolution." By replacing the perplexing variety of packages in which various finished and semi-finished products were stowed on the tweendecks of liners with a standard-size steel container, loading and unloading times were shortened from weeks to hours, and the same containers could also be reloaded onto trucks or trains. Moreover, a sturdy and sealable steel box diminished the risks of both damage at sea and pilferage in ports. Ultimately, even the logistical control of commodity flows was revolutionized by modern computer technology. Although this was not part of the original innovation, the handling and redistribution of the huge contemporary volumes of containers, sent by an almost infinite number of shippers, could not be managed by traditional tallying and marking methods. Thus, it is easy to understand why the container revolution has been regarded by scholars and businessmen alike as a key factor in the recent growth of international trade.

The International Journal of Maritime History, Dec 1, 2006

It is well known that ocean freights declined dramatically in the nineteenth century, especially ... more It is well known that ocean freights declined dramatically in the nineteenth century, especially after 1875, when steamships started to take over the most important ocean routes. This trend further continued in the twentieth century. As Douglass C. North has shown, around 1820 freight costs, depending upon commodity and distance, amounted to between fifteen and thirty percent of import (cit) prices. By contrast, in the 1990s the "freight ratio" in the trade of most developed countries amounted to a mere three to five percent. 2 A decline of such proportions must have had a powerful impact on global trade. In the late 1930s, L. Isserlis charted the "first stage" of this transformation in his well-known study of "tramp" freights from 1869 to 1936.3 Subsequently, his findings for the pre-World War I period have been amplified upon by scholars such as Douglass C. North, C. Knick Harley, Lewis R. Fischer and Helge W. Nordvik. The most recent contribution is an article by Saif I. Shah Mohammed and Jeffrey G. Williamson which re-examines Isser-

Liverpool University Press eBooks, Mar 21, 2018