Zehava Eichenbaum - Profile on Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Zehava Eichenbaum

Genetics, Jul 1, 1998

A new mutagenesis assay system based on the phage 434 cI gene carried on a low-copy number plasmi... more A new mutagenesis assay system based on the phage 434 cI gene carried on a low-copy number plasmid was used to investigate the effect of UV light on intermolecular transposition of IS10. Inactivation of the target gene by IS10 insertion was detected by the expression of the tet gene from the phage 434 P R promoter, followed by Southern blot analysis of plasmids isolated from Tet R colonies. UV irradiation of cells harboring the target plasmid and a donor plasmid carrying an IS10 element led to an increase of up to 28-fold in IS10 transposition. Each UV-induced transposition of IS10 was accompanied by fusion of the donor and acceptor plasmid into a cointegrate structure, due to coupled homologous recombination at the insertion site, similar to the situation in spontaneous IS10 transposition. UV radiation also induced transposition of IS10 from the chromosome to the target plasmid, leading almost exclusively to the integration of the target plasmid into the chromosome. UV induction of IS10 transposition did not depend on the umuC and uvrA gene product, but it was not observed in lexA3 and ⌬recA strains, indicating that the SOS stress response is involved in regulating UV-induced transposition. IS10 transposition, known to increase the fitness of Escherichia coli, may have been recruited under the SOS response to assist in increasing cell survival under hostile environmental conditions. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the induction of transposition by a DNA-damaging agent and the SOS stress response in bacteria.

Genetics

Interplasmid and chromosome to plasmid transposition of IS10 were studied by assaying inactivatio... more Interplasmid and chromosome to plasmid transposition of IS10 were studied by assaying inactivation of the phage 434 cZ gene, carried on a low copy number plasmid. This was detected by the activity of the tet gene expressed from the phage 434 PR promoter. Each interplasmid transposition resulted in the fusion of the donor and acceptor plasmids into cointegrate structure, with a 9-bp duplication of the target DNA at the insertion site. Cointegrate formation was abolished in ArecA strains, although simple insertions of ISlOwere observed. This suggests a two-stage mechanism involving IS10 conservative transposition, followed by homologous recombination between the donor and the acceptor. Two plasmids carrying inactive IS10 sequences were fused to cointegrates at a 100-fold lower frequency, suggesting that homologous recombination is coupled to and stimulated by the transposition event. Each IS10 transposition from the chromosome to the acceptor plasmid involved replicon fusion, providing a mechanism for ISlOmediated integration of extrachromosomal elements into the chromosome. This was accompanied by the formation of an additional copy of ISlOin the chromosome. Thus, like replicative transposition, conservative transposition of IS10 is accompanied by cointegrate formation and results in duplication of the ISIO.

Eichenbaum Z, Livneh Z. UV light induces IS10 transposition in Escherichia coli. Genetics 149: 1173-1181

Genetics

ABSTRACT

Genetics, 1998

A new mutagenesis assay system based on the phage 434 cI gene carried on a low-copy number plasmi... more A new mutagenesis assay system based on the phage 434 cI gene carried on a low-copy number plasmid was used to investigate the effect of UV light on intermolecular transposition of IS10. Inactivation of the target gene by IS10 insertion was detected by the expression of the tet gene from the phage 434 PR promoter, followed by Southern blot analysis of plasmids isolated from TetR colonies. UV irradiation of cells harboring the target plasmid and a donor plasmid carrying an IS10 element led to an increase of up to 28-fold in IS10 transposition. Each UV-induced transposition of IS10 was accompanied by fusion of the donor and acceptor plasmid into a cointegrate structure, due to coupled homologous recombination at the insertion site, similar to the situation in spontaneous IS10 transposition. UV radiation also induced transposition of IS10 from the chromosome to the target plasmid, leading almost exclusively to the integration of the target plasmid into the chromosome. UV induction of I...

The streptococcal hemoprotein receptor

Virulence, 2012

The β-hemolytic group A streptococcus (GAS) is a major pathogen that readily uses hemoglobin to s... more The β-hemolytic group A streptococcus (GAS) is a major pathogen that readily uses hemoglobin to satisfy its requirements for iron. The streptococcal hemoprotein receptor in GAS plays a central role in heme utilization and binds fibronectin and laminin in vitro. Shr inactivation attenuates the virulent M1T1 GAS strain in two murine infection models and reduces bacterial growth in blood and binding to laminin. Shr impact on the globally disseminated M1T1 strain underscores the importance of heme uptake in GAS pathogenesis and raises the possibility of targeting heme-uptake proteins in the development of new methods to combat GAS infections.

Infection and Immunity, Mar 1, 2010

The use of Lactococcus lactis to deliver a chosen antigen to the mucosal surface has been shown t... more The use of Lactococcus lactis to deliver a chosen antigen to the mucosal surface has been shown to elicit an immune response in mice and is a possible method of vaccination in humans. The recent discovery on Gram-positive bacteria of pili that are covalently attached to the bacterial surface and the elucidation of the residues linking the major and minor subunits of such pili suggests that the presentation of an antigen on the tip of pili external to the surface of L. lactis might constitute a successful vaccine strategy. As a proof of principle, we have fused a foreign protein (the Escherichia coli maltose-binding protein) to the C-terminal region of the native tip protein (Cpa) of the T3 pilus derived from Streptococcus pyogenes and expressed this fusion protein (MBP*) in L. lactis. We find that MBP* is incorporated into pili in this foreign host, as shown by Western blot analyses of cell wall proteins and by immunogold electron microscopy. Furthermore, since the MBP* on these pili retains its native biological activity, it appears to retain its native structure. Mucosal immunization of mice with this L. lactis strain expressing pilus-linked MBP* results in production of both a systemic and a mucosal response (IgG and IgA antibodies) against the MBP antigen. We suggest that this type of mucosal vaccine delivery system, which we term UPTOP (for unhindered presentation on tips of pili), may provide an inexpensive and stable alternative to current mechanisms of immunization for many serious human pathogens.

Heme-bound SiaA from Streptococcus pyogenes: Effects of mutations and oxidation state on protein stability

Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry, 2015

The protein SiaA (HtsA) is part of a heme uptake pathway in Streptococcus pyogenes. In this repor... more The protein SiaA (HtsA) is part of a heme uptake pathway in Streptococcus pyogenes. In this report, we present the heme binding of the alanine mutants of the axial histidine (H229A) and methionine (M79A) ligands, as well as a lysine (K61A) and cysteine (C58A) located near the heme propionates (based on homology modeling) and a control mutant (C47A). pH titrations gave pKa values ranging from 9.0 to 9.5, close to the value of 9.7 for WT SiaA. Resonance Raman spectra of the mutants suggested that the ferric heme environment may be distinct from the wild-type; spectra of the ferrous states were similar. The midpoint reduction potential of the K61A mutant was determined by spectroelectrochemical titration to be 61±3mV vs. SHE, similar to the wild-type protein (68±3mV). The addition of guanidine hydrochloride showed two processes for protein denaturation, consistent with heme loss from protein forms differing by the orientation of the heme in the binding pocket (the half-life for the slower process ranged from less than half a day to two days). The ease of protein unfolding was related to the strength of interaction of the residues with the heme. We hypothesize that kinetically facile but only partial unfolding, followed by a very slow approach to the completely unfolded state, may be a fundamental attribute of heme trafficking proteins. Small motions to release/transfer the heme accompanied by resistance to extensive unfolding may preserve the three dimensional form of the protein for further uptake and release.

Applied and Environmental Microbiology

We characterized the regulated activity of the lactococcal nisA promoter in strains of the gram-p... more We characterized the regulated activity of the lactococcal nisA promoter in strains of the gram-positive species Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Enterococcus faecalis, and Bacillus subtilis. nisA promoter activity was dependent on the proteins NisR and NisK, which constitute a twocomponent signal transduction system that responds to the extracellular inducer nisin. The nisin sensitivity and inducer concentration required for maximal induction varied among the strains. Significant induction of the nisA promoter (10-to 60-fold induction) was obtained in all of the species studied at a nisin concentration just below the concentration at which growth is inhibited. The efficiency of the nisA promoter was compared to the efficiencies of the Spac, xylA, and lacA promoters in B. subtilis and in S. pyogenes. Because nisA promoterdriven expression is regulated in many gram-positive bacteria, we expect it to be useful for genetic studies, especially studies with pathogenic streptococci in which no other regulated promoters have been described.

Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis, 1992

A new mutagenesis assay system based on the phage A cro repressor gene residing on a plasmid was ... more A new mutagenesis assay system based on the phage A cro repressor gene residing on a plasmid was developed. The assay detects mutations in cro that decrease the binding of the repressor to the O R operator in an ORPR-lacZ fusion present in a A prophage. Mutations arose spontaneously during growth of E. coli cells harboring cro plasmids at a frequency of 3-6 × 10 -6. Analysis of some 200 cro mutants from several 'wild-type' strains revealed a substantial fraction of 25-70% insertion events caused by transposition of IS elements. Most of the insertions were caused by ISI, but IS5 insertions were observed too. In strains harboring Tnl0, IS10 was responsible for most insertions. Restriction nuclease digestion analysis revealed a preference for insertion of ISI0 into the C-terminal half of cro, despite the absence of sequences which are known hot spots for Tnl0 insertions. The frequency of IS1 insertions into cro decreased 25-60-fold and that of ISI0 insertions decreased 200-fold in cells carrying the recAS6 mutation, suggesting that RecA is involved in transposition of these elements. During the logarithmic phase of growth, the mutation frequency was constant for at least 22 generations; however, upon continuous incubation at the stationary phase, the mutation frequency gradually increased, yielding a 3-fold increase in the frequency of insertion and a 4-5-fold increase in point mutation. Genomic Southern analysis of chromosomal IS elements in cells which underwent a transposition from the chromosome into the cro plasmid revealed that the number and distribution of ISI and IS5 were usually unaltered compared to cells which did not undergo a transposition event. In contrast, essentially each IS10 transposition was accompanied by multiple events which led to changes in the number and distribution of chromosomal ISI0 elements. Abbreciations: MOPS, 3.(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid; Correspondence: Dr. Zvi Livneh, Department of Biochem-SDS, sodium dodecyl sulfate; EDTA, ethylenediamine teistry, The Wcizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100 traacetic acid; bp, base pairs; m.o.i., multiplicity of infection. (Israel).

Infection and immunity, 1996

To identify mammalian iron-binding proteins that can serve as iron sources for Streptococcus pyog... more To identify mammalian iron-binding proteins that can serve as iron sources for Streptococcus pyogenes, the group A streptococcus (GAS), we used a plate assay. Ferritin, hemin, hemoglobin, myoglobin, and catalase can support growth of GAS on iron-depleted medium. However, growth was not detected when iron was provided as iron-saturated transferrin or lactoferrin or bound to cytochrome c. Therefore, it appears that GAS can use the intracellular iron sources available in the human body, which is consistent with its ability to cause tissue destruction during infection.

Applied and environmental microbiology, 1998

We characterized the regulated activity of the lactococcal nisA promoter in strains of the gram-p... more We characterized the regulated activity of the lactococcal nisA promoter in strains of the gram-positive species Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Enterococcus faecalis, and Bacillus subtilis. nisA promoter activity was dependent on the proteins NisR and NisK, which constitute a two-component signal transduction system that responds to the extracellular inducer nisin. The nisin sensitivity and inducer concentration required for maximal induction varied among the strains. Significant induction of the nisA promoter (10- to 60-fold induction) was obtained in all of the species studied at a nisin concentration just below the concentration at which growth is inhibited. The efficiency of the nisA promoter was compared to the efficiencies of the Spac, xylA, and lacA promoters in B. subtilis and in S. pyogenes. Because nisA promoter-driven expression is regulated in many gram-positive bacteria, we expect it to be useful for genetic studies, especial...

Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 1998

We characterized the regulated activity of the lactococcal nisA promoter in strains of the gram-p... more We characterized the regulated activity of the lactococcal nisA promoter in strains of the gram-positive species Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Enterococcus faecalis, and Bacillus subtilis. nisA promoter activity was dependent on the proteins NisR and NisK, which constitute a two-component signal transduction system that responds to the extracellular inducer nisin. The nisin sensitivity and inducer concentration required for

Molecular Microbiology, 2010

A growing body of evidence suggests that surface or secreted proteins with NEAr Transporter (NEAT... more A growing body of evidence suggests that surface or secreted proteins with NEAr Transporter (NEAT) domains play a central role in heme acquisition and trafficking across the cell envelope of Gram-positive bacteria. Group A Streptococcus (GAS), a β-hemolytic human pathogen, expresses a NEAT protein, Shr, which binds several hemoproteins and extracellular matrix (ECM) components. Shr is a complex, membrane-anchored protein, with a unique N-terminal domain (NTD) and two NEAT domains separated by a central leucine-rich repeat region. In this study we have carried out an analysis of the functional domains in Shr. We show that Shr obtains heme in solution and furthermore reduces the heme iron; this is the first report of heme reduction by a NEAT protein. More specifically, we demonstrate that both of the constituent NEAT domains of Shr are responsible for binding heme, although they are missing a critical tyrosine residue found in the ligand-binding pocket of other heme-binding NEAT domains. Further investigations show that a previously undescribed region within the Shr NTD interacts with methemoglobin. Shr NEAT domains, however, do not contribute significantly to the binding of methemoglobin but mediate binding to the ECM components fibronectin and laminin. A protein fragment containing the NTD plus the first NEAT domain was found to be sufficient to sequester heme directly from methemoglobin. Correlating these in vitro findings to in vivo biological function, mutants analysis establishes the role of Shr in GAS growth with methemoglobin as a sole source of iron, and indicates that at least one NEAT domain is necessary for the utilization of methemoglobin. We suggest that Shr is the prototype of a new group of NEAT composite proteins involved in heme uptake found in pyogenic streptococci and Clostridium novyi.

Molecular Microbiology, 2010

While MtsR has been implicated in GAS virulence, the DNA recognition and full regulatory scope ex... more While MtsR has been implicated in GAS virulence, the DNA recognition and full regulatory scope exerted by the protein are unknown. In this study we identified the shr promoter (Pshr) and mapped MtsR binding to a 69 bp segment in Pshr that overlaps the core promoter elements. A global transcriptional analysis demonstrated that MtsR modulates the expression of 64 genes in GAS, 44 of which were upregulated and 20 were downregulated in the mtsR mutant. MtsR controls genes with diverse functions including metal homeostasis, nucleic acid and amino acid metabolism, and protein fate. Importantly, the MtsR regulon includes mga, emm49 and ska, which are central for GAS pathogenesis. MtsR binding to the promoter region of both negatively and positively regulated genes demonstrates that it functions as a dual regulator. MtsR footprints are large (47-130 bp) and vary between target promoters. A 16 bp motif that consists of an interrupted palindrome is implicated in the DNA recognition by the metalloregulator. In conclusion, we report here that MtsR is a global regulator in GAS that shapes the expression of vital virulence factors and genes involved in metabolic functions and metal transport, and we discuss the implications for the GAS disease process.

Microbiology, 2005

A limited understanding of iron uptake mechanisms is available for Streptococcus pyogenes, a haem... more A limited understanding of iron uptake mechanisms is available for Streptococcus pyogenes, a haemolytic human pathogen capable of using a variety of haemoproteins in addition to ferric and ferrous iron. This study characterizes a transporter named siu (for streptococcal iron uptake), which consists of an ATP-binding protein (SiuA), a substrate-binding protein (SiuD), and two membrane permease subunits (SiuBG). An siuG mutant was constructed and characterized. The mutant demonstrated growth reduction in comparison to the parent strain when grown in complex medium containing iron in the form of blood, haemoglobin or serum. Only a small reduction in the growth of the siuG mutant was observed in medium containing ferric iron. However, in iron uptake assays the siuG mutant showed a decrease of approximately 30 % in Fe 3+ incorporation. Addition of 6 mM haem to the medium inhibited Fe 3+ uptake by the wild-type by 76 %, while addition of protoporphyrin IX did not, suggesting that utilization of haem as an iron source is responsible for the inhibition of Fe 3+ uptake. Inactivation of siuG moderately reduced the ability of haem to inhibit Fe 3+ incorporation by the cells. Inactivation of siaB (encoding a membrane permease of a second iron transporter) had a similar outcome, and inactivation of both transporters had a cumulative effect. These observations implicate both the siu and sia transporters in haem utilization by Strep. pyogenes. Studies in a zebrafish infection model revealed that the siuG mutant was attenuated in both intramuscular and intraperitoneal routes of infection. Together these observations show that the siu system is an iron acquisition pathway in Strep. pyogenes that is important both in vitro and in vivo.

Defense From the Group A Streptococcus by Active and Passive Vaccination With the Streptococcal Hemoprotein Receptor

Journal of Infectious Diseases, 2011

The worldwide burden of the Group A Streptococcus (GAS) primary infection and sequelae is conside... more The worldwide burden of the Group A Streptococcus (GAS) primary infection and sequelae is considerable, although immunization programs with broad coverage of the hyper variable GAS are still missing. We evaluate the streptococcal hemoprotein receptor (Shr), a conserved streptococcal protein, as a vaccine candidate against GAS infection. Mice were immunized intraperitoneally with purified Shr or intranasally with Shr-expressing Lactococcus lactis. The resulting humoral response in serum and secretions was determined. We evaluated protection from GAS infection in mice after active or passive vaccination with Shr, and Shr antiserum was tested for bactericidal activity. A robust Shr-specific immunoglobulin (Ig) G response was observed in mouse serum after intraperitoneal vaccination with Shr. Intranasal immunization elicited both a strong IgG reaction in the serum and a specific IgA reaction in secretions. Shr immunization in both models allowed enhanced protection from systemic GAS challenge. Rabbit Shr antiserum was opsonizing, and mice that were administrated with Shr antiserum prior to the infection demonstrated a significantly higher survival rate than did mice treated with normal rabbit serum. Shr is a promising vaccine candidate that is capable of eliciting bactericidal antibody response and conferring immunity against systemic GAS infection in both passive and active vaccination models.

Journal of Biological Chemistry, 1998

Early metabolic events in Escherichia coli exposed to nalidixic acid, a topoisomerase II inhibito... more Early metabolic events in Escherichia coli exposed to nalidixic acid, a topoisomerase II inhibitor and an inducer of the SOS system, were investigated by in vivo NMR spectroscopy, a technique that permits monitoring of bacteria under controlled physiological conditions. The energetics of AB1157 (wild type) and of its isogenic, SOS-defective mutants, recBC, lexA, and ⌬recA, were studied by 31 P and 19 F NMR before, during, and after exposure to nalidixic acid. The content of the NTP in E. coli embedded in agarose beads and perfused at 36°C was found to be 4.3 ؎ 1.1 ؋ 10 ؊18 mol/cell, yielding a concentration of ϳ2.7 ؎ 0.7 mM. Nalidixic acid induced in the wild type and mutants a rapid 2-fold increase in the content of the NTP, predominantly ATP. This induction did not involve synthesis of uracil derivatives or breakdown of RNA and caused cell proliferation to stop. Removal of nalidixic acid after 40 min of treatment rescued the cells and resulted in a decrease of ATP to control levels and resumption of proliferation. However, in ⌬recA cells, which were more sensitive to the activity of the drug, ATP elevation could not be reversed, and ATP content continued to increase faster than in control cells. The results ruled out association between the elevation of ATP and the induction of the SOS system and suggested involvement of a process reminiscent of apoptosis in the stimulation of ATP synthesis. Thus, the presence of the RecA protein was found to be essential for reversing the ATP increase and cell rescue, possibly by its function in repair of DNA damage.

The Phosphoenolpyruvate Phosphotransferase System in Group A Streptococcus Acts To Reduce Streptolysin S Activity and Lesion Severity during Soft Tissue Infection

Infection and Immunity, 2014

Obtaining essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, is an important process for bacterial patho... more Obtaining essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, is an important process for bacterial pathogens to successfully colonize host tissues. The phosphoenolpyruvate phosphotransferase system (PTS) is the primary mechanism by which bacteria transport sugars and sense the carbon state of the cell. The group A streptococcus (GAS) is a fastidious microorganism that has adapted to a variety of niches in the human body to elicit a wide array of diseases. A ΔptsI mutant (enzyme I [EI] deficient) generated in three different strains of M1T1 GAS was unable to grow on multiple carbon sources (PTS and non-PTS). Complementation with ptsI expressed under its native promoter in single copy was able to rescue the growth defect of the mutant. In a mouse model of GAS soft tissue infection, all ΔptsI mutants exhibited a significantly larger and more severe ulcerative lesion than mice infected with the wild type. Increased transcript levels of sagA and streptolysin S (SLS) activity during exponential-phase growth was observed. We hypothesized that early onset of SLS activity would correlate with the severity of the lesions induced by the ΔptsI mutant. In fact, infection of mice with a ΔptsI sagB double mutant resulted in a lesion comparable to that of either the wild type or a sagB mutant alone. Therefore, a functional PTS is not required for subcutaneous skin infection in mice; however, it does play a role in coordinating virulence factor expression and disease progression.

Infection and Immunity, 2005

Group A streptococcus (GAS) is a common pathogen of the human skin and mucosal surfaces capable o... more Group A streptococcus (GAS) is a common pathogen of the human skin and mucosal surfaces capable of producing a variety of diseases. In this study, we investigated regulation of iron uptake in GAS and the role of a putative transcriptional regulator named MtsR (for Mts repressor) with homology to the DtxR family of metal-dependent regulatory proteins. An mtsR mutant was constructed in NZ131 (M49 serotype) and analyzed. Western blot and RNA analysis showed that mtsR inactivation results in constitutive transcription of the sia (streptococcal iron acquisition) operon, which was negatively regulated by iron in the parent strain. A recombinant MtsR with C-terminal His 6 tag fusion (rMtsR) was cloned and purified. Electrophoretic mobility gel shift assays demonstrated that rMtsR specifically binds to the sia promoter region in an iron-and manganese-dependent manner. Together, these observations indicate that MtsR directly represses the sia operon during cell growth under conditions of high metal levels. Consistent with deregulation of iron uptake, the mtsR mutant is hypersensitive to streptonigrin and hydrogen peroxide, and 55 Fe uptake assays demonstrate that it accumulates 80% ؎ 22.5% more iron than the wild-type strain during growth in complete medium. Studies with a zebrafish infection model revealed that the mtsR mutant is attenuated for virulence in both the intramuscular and the intraperitoneal routes. In conclusion, MtsR, a new regulatory protein in GAS, controls iron homeostasis and has a role in disease production.

Infection and Immunity, 2003

The hemolytic Streptococcus pyogenes can use a variety of heme compounds as an iron source. In th... more The hemolytic Streptococcus pyogenes can use a variety of heme compounds as an iron source. In this study, we investigate hemoprotein utilization by S. pyogenes. We demonstrate that surface proteins contribute to the binding of hemoproteins to S. pyogenes. We identify an ABC transporter from the iron complex family named sia for streptococcal iron acquisition, which consists of a lipoprotein (siaA), membrane permease (siaB), and ATPase (siaC). The sia transporter is part of a highly conserved, iron regulated, 10-gene operon. SiaA, which was localized to the cell membrane, could specifically bind hemoglobin. The operon's first gene encodes a novel bacterial protein that bound hemoglobin, myoglobin, heme-albumin, and hemoglobin-haptoglobin (but not apo-haptoglobin) and therefore was named Shr, for streptococcal hemoprotein receptor. PhoZ fusion and Western blot analysis showed that Shr has a leader peptide and is found in both membrane-bound and soluble forms. An M1 SF370 strain with a polar mutation in shr was more resistant to streptonigrin and hydrogen peroxide, suggesting decreased iron uptake. The addition of hemoglobin to the culture medium increased cell resistance to hydrogen peroxide in SF370 but not in the mutant, implying the sia operon may be involved in hemoglobin-dependent resistance to oxidative stress. The shr mutant demonstrated reduced hemoglobin binding, though cell growth in iron-depleted medium supplemented with hemoglobin, whole blood, or ferric citrate was not affected, suggesting additional systems are involved in hemoglobin utilization. SiaA and Shr are the first hemoprotein receptors identified in S. pyogenes; their possible role in iron capture is discussed. PCR analysis of the sia locus in S. pyogenes isolates. PCR analysis was done with S. pyogenes chromosomal DNA extracted from different strains as a template. The fragments shr-spy1796, spy1796-siaC, and siaC-spy1787 were amplified from each strain by using the primer pairs 204Y-S and 204X-A, 204X-S and 204C-Rev, and 204C-Fwd and 204-ORF5-A, respectively.

Genetics, Jul 1, 1998

A new mutagenesis assay system based on the phage 434 cI gene carried on a low-copy number plasmi... more A new mutagenesis assay system based on the phage 434 cI gene carried on a low-copy number plasmid was used to investigate the effect of UV light on intermolecular transposition of IS10. Inactivation of the target gene by IS10 insertion was detected by the expression of the tet gene from the phage 434 P R promoter, followed by Southern blot analysis of plasmids isolated from Tet R colonies. UV irradiation of cells harboring the target plasmid and a donor plasmid carrying an IS10 element led to an increase of up to 28-fold in IS10 transposition. Each UV-induced transposition of IS10 was accompanied by fusion of the donor and acceptor plasmid into a cointegrate structure, due to coupled homologous recombination at the insertion site, similar to the situation in spontaneous IS10 transposition. UV radiation also induced transposition of IS10 from the chromosome to the target plasmid, leading almost exclusively to the integration of the target plasmid into the chromosome. UV induction of IS10 transposition did not depend on the umuC and uvrA gene product, but it was not observed in lexA3 and ⌬recA strains, indicating that the SOS stress response is involved in regulating UV-induced transposition. IS10 transposition, known to increase the fitness of Escherichia coli, may have been recruited under the SOS response to assist in increasing cell survival under hostile environmental conditions. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the induction of transposition by a DNA-damaging agent and the SOS stress response in bacteria.

Genetics

Interplasmid and chromosome to plasmid transposition of IS10 were studied by assaying inactivatio... more Interplasmid and chromosome to plasmid transposition of IS10 were studied by assaying inactivation of the phage 434 cZ gene, carried on a low copy number plasmid. This was detected by the activity of the tet gene expressed from the phage 434 PR promoter. Each interplasmid transposition resulted in the fusion of the donor and acceptor plasmids into cointegrate structure, with a 9-bp duplication of the target DNA at the insertion site. Cointegrate formation was abolished in ArecA strains, although simple insertions of ISlOwere observed. This suggests a two-stage mechanism involving IS10 conservative transposition, followed by homologous recombination between the donor and the acceptor. Two plasmids carrying inactive IS10 sequences were fused to cointegrates at a 100-fold lower frequency, suggesting that homologous recombination is coupled to and stimulated by the transposition event. Each IS10 transposition from the chromosome to the acceptor plasmid involved replicon fusion, providing a mechanism for ISlOmediated integration of extrachromosomal elements into the chromosome. This was accompanied by the formation of an additional copy of ISlOin the chromosome. Thus, like replicative transposition, conservative transposition of IS10 is accompanied by cointegrate formation and results in duplication of the ISIO.

Eichenbaum Z, Livneh Z. UV light induces IS10 transposition in Escherichia coli. Genetics 149: 1173-1181

Genetics

ABSTRACT

Genetics, 1998

A new mutagenesis assay system based on the phage 434 cI gene carried on a low-copy number plasmi... more A new mutagenesis assay system based on the phage 434 cI gene carried on a low-copy number plasmid was used to investigate the effect of UV light on intermolecular transposition of IS10. Inactivation of the target gene by IS10 insertion was detected by the expression of the tet gene from the phage 434 PR promoter, followed by Southern blot analysis of plasmids isolated from TetR colonies. UV irradiation of cells harboring the target plasmid and a donor plasmid carrying an IS10 element led to an increase of up to 28-fold in IS10 transposition. Each UV-induced transposition of IS10 was accompanied by fusion of the donor and acceptor plasmid into a cointegrate structure, due to coupled homologous recombination at the insertion site, similar to the situation in spontaneous IS10 transposition. UV radiation also induced transposition of IS10 from the chromosome to the target plasmid, leading almost exclusively to the integration of the target plasmid into the chromosome. UV induction of I...

The streptococcal hemoprotein receptor

Virulence, 2012

The β-hemolytic group A streptococcus (GAS) is a major pathogen that readily uses hemoglobin to s... more The β-hemolytic group A streptococcus (GAS) is a major pathogen that readily uses hemoglobin to satisfy its requirements for iron. The streptococcal hemoprotein receptor in GAS plays a central role in heme utilization and binds fibronectin and laminin in vitro. Shr inactivation attenuates the virulent M1T1 GAS strain in two murine infection models and reduces bacterial growth in blood and binding to laminin. Shr impact on the globally disseminated M1T1 strain underscores the importance of heme uptake in GAS pathogenesis and raises the possibility of targeting heme-uptake proteins in the development of new methods to combat GAS infections.

Infection and Immunity, Mar 1, 2010

The use of Lactococcus lactis to deliver a chosen antigen to the mucosal surface has been shown t... more The use of Lactococcus lactis to deliver a chosen antigen to the mucosal surface has been shown to elicit an immune response in mice and is a possible method of vaccination in humans. The recent discovery on Gram-positive bacteria of pili that are covalently attached to the bacterial surface and the elucidation of the residues linking the major and minor subunits of such pili suggests that the presentation of an antigen on the tip of pili external to the surface of L. lactis might constitute a successful vaccine strategy. As a proof of principle, we have fused a foreign protein (the Escherichia coli maltose-binding protein) to the C-terminal region of the native tip protein (Cpa) of the T3 pilus derived from Streptococcus pyogenes and expressed this fusion protein (MBP*) in L. lactis. We find that MBP* is incorporated into pili in this foreign host, as shown by Western blot analyses of cell wall proteins and by immunogold electron microscopy. Furthermore, since the MBP* on these pili retains its native biological activity, it appears to retain its native structure. Mucosal immunization of mice with this L. lactis strain expressing pilus-linked MBP* results in production of both a systemic and a mucosal response (IgG and IgA antibodies) against the MBP antigen. We suggest that this type of mucosal vaccine delivery system, which we term UPTOP (for unhindered presentation on tips of pili), may provide an inexpensive and stable alternative to current mechanisms of immunization for many serious human pathogens.

Heme-bound SiaA from Streptococcus pyogenes: Effects of mutations and oxidation state on protein stability

Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry, 2015

The protein SiaA (HtsA) is part of a heme uptake pathway in Streptococcus pyogenes. In this repor... more The protein SiaA (HtsA) is part of a heme uptake pathway in Streptococcus pyogenes. In this report, we present the heme binding of the alanine mutants of the axial histidine (H229A) and methionine (M79A) ligands, as well as a lysine (K61A) and cysteine (C58A) located near the heme propionates (based on homology modeling) and a control mutant (C47A). pH titrations gave pKa values ranging from 9.0 to 9.5, close to the value of 9.7 for WT SiaA. Resonance Raman spectra of the mutants suggested that the ferric heme environment may be distinct from the wild-type; spectra of the ferrous states were similar. The midpoint reduction potential of the K61A mutant was determined by spectroelectrochemical titration to be 61±3mV vs. SHE, similar to the wild-type protein (68±3mV). The addition of guanidine hydrochloride showed two processes for protein denaturation, consistent with heme loss from protein forms differing by the orientation of the heme in the binding pocket (the half-life for the slower process ranged from less than half a day to two days). The ease of protein unfolding was related to the strength of interaction of the residues with the heme. We hypothesize that kinetically facile but only partial unfolding, followed by a very slow approach to the completely unfolded state, may be a fundamental attribute of heme trafficking proteins. Small motions to release/transfer the heme accompanied by resistance to extensive unfolding may preserve the three dimensional form of the protein for further uptake and release.

Applied and Environmental Microbiology

We characterized the regulated activity of the lactococcal nisA promoter in strains of the gram-p... more We characterized the regulated activity of the lactococcal nisA promoter in strains of the gram-positive species Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Enterococcus faecalis, and Bacillus subtilis. nisA promoter activity was dependent on the proteins NisR and NisK, which constitute a twocomponent signal transduction system that responds to the extracellular inducer nisin. The nisin sensitivity and inducer concentration required for maximal induction varied among the strains. Significant induction of the nisA promoter (10-to 60-fold induction) was obtained in all of the species studied at a nisin concentration just below the concentration at which growth is inhibited. The efficiency of the nisA promoter was compared to the efficiencies of the Spac, xylA, and lacA promoters in B. subtilis and in S. pyogenes. Because nisA promoterdriven expression is regulated in many gram-positive bacteria, we expect it to be useful for genetic studies, especially studies with pathogenic streptococci in which no other regulated promoters have been described.

Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis, 1992

A new mutagenesis assay system based on the phage A cro repressor gene residing on a plasmid was ... more A new mutagenesis assay system based on the phage A cro repressor gene residing on a plasmid was developed. The assay detects mutations in cro that decrease the binding of the repressor to the O R operator in an ORPR-lacZ fusion present in a A prophage. Mutations arose spontaneously during growth of E. coli cells harboring cro plasmids at a frequency of 3-6 × 10 -6. Analysis of some 200 cro mutants from several 'wild-type' strains revealed a substantial fraction of 25-70% insertion events caused by transposition of IS elements. Most of the insertions were caused by ISI, but IS5 insertions were observed too. In strains harboring Tnl0, IS10 was responsible for most insertions. Restriction nuclease digestion analysis revealed a preference for insertion of ISI0 into the C-terminal half of cro, despite the absence of sequences which are known hot spots for Tnl0 insertions. The frequency of IS1 insertions into cro decreased 25-60-fold and that of ISI0 insertions decreased 200-fold in cells carrying the recAS6 mutation, suggesting that RecA is involved in transposition of these elements. During the logarithmic phase of growth, the mutation frequency was constant for at least 22 generations; however, upon continuous incubation at the stationary phase, the mutation frequency gradually increased, yielding a 3-fold increase in the frequency of insertion and a 4-5-fold increase in point mutation. Genomic Southern analysis of chromosomal IS elements in cells which underwent a transposition from the chromosome into the cro plasmid revealed that the number and distribution of ISI and IS5 were usually unaltered compared to cells which did not undergo a transposition event. In contrast, essentially each IS10 transposition was accompanied by multiple events which led to changes in the number and distribution of chromosomal ISI0 elements. Abbreciations: MOPS, 3.(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid; Correspondence: Dr. Zvi Livneh, Department of Biochem-SDS, sodium dodecyl sulfate; EDTA, ethylenediamine teistry, The Wcizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100 traacetic acid; bp, base pairs; m.o.i., multiplicity of infection. (Israel).

Infection and immunity, 1996

To identify mammalian iron-binding proteins that can serve as iron sources for Streptococcus pyog... more To identify mammalian iron-binding proteins that can serve as iron sources for Streptococcus pyogenes, the group A streptococcus (GAS), we used a plate assay. Ferritin, hemin, hemoglobin, myoglobin, and catalase can support growth of GAS on iron-depleted medium. However, growth was not detected when iron was provided as iron-saturated transferrin or lactoferrin or bound to cytochrome c. Therefore, it appears that GAS can use the intracellular iron sources available in the human body, which is consistent with its ability to cause tissue destruction during infection.

Applied and environmental microbiology, 1998

We characterized the regulated activity of the lactococcal nisA promoter in strains of the gram-p... more We characterized the regulated activity of the lactococcal nisA promoter in strains of the gram-positive species Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Enterococcus faecalis, and Bacillus subtilis. nisA promoter activity was dependent on the proteins NisR and NisK, which constitute a two-component signal transduction system that responds to the extracellular inducer nisin. The nisin sensitivity and inducer concentration required for maximal induction varied among the strains. Significant induction of the nisA promoter (10- to 60-fold induction) was obtained in all of the species studied at a nisin concentration just below the concentration at which growth is inhibited. The efficiency of the nisA promoter was compared to the efficiencies of the Spac, xylA, and lacA promoters in B. subtilis and in S. pyogenes. Because nisA promoter-driven expression is regulated in many gram-positive bacteria, we expect it to be useful for genetic studies, especial...

Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 1998

We characterized the regulated activity of the lactococcal nisA promoter in strains of the gram-p... more We characterized the regulated activity of the lactococcal nisA promoter in strains of the gram-positive species Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Enterococcus faecalis, and Bacillus subtilis. nisA promoter activity was dependent on the proteins NisR and NisK, which constitute a two-component signal transduction system that responds to the extracellular inducer nisin. The nisin sensitivity and inducer concentration required for

Molecular Microbiology, 2010

A growing body of evidence suggests that surface or secreted proteins with NEAr Transporter (NEAT... more A growing body of evidence suggests that surface or secreted proteins with NEAr Transporter (NEAT) domains play a central role in heme acquisition and trafficking across the cell envelope of Gram-positive bacteria. Group A Streptococcus (GAS), a β-hemolytic human pathogen, expresses a NEAT protein, Shr, which binds several hemoproteins and extracellular matrix (ECM) components. Shr is a complex, membrane-anchored protein, with a unique N-terminal domain (NTD) and two NEAT domains separated by a central leucine-rich repeat region. In this study we have carried out an analysis of the functional domains in Shr. We show that Shr obtains heme in solution and furthermore reduces the heme iron; this is the first report of heme reduction by a NEAT protein. More specifically, we demonstrate that both of the constituent NEAT domains of Shr are responsible for binding heme, although they are missing a critical tyrosine residue found in the ligand-binding pocket of other heme-binding NEAT domains. Further investigations show that a previously undescribed region within the Shr NTD interacts with methemoglobin. Shr NEAT domains, however, do not contribute significantly to the binding of methemoglobin but mediate binding to the ECM components fibronectin and laminin. A protein fragment containing the NTD plus the first NEAT domain was found to be sufficient to sequester heme directly from methemoglobin. Correlating these in vitro findings to in vivo biological function, mutants analysis establishes the role of Shr in GAS growth with methemoglobin as a sole source of iron, and indicates that at least one NEAT domain is necessary for the utilization of methemoglobin. We suggest that Shr is the prototype of a new group of NEAT composite proteins involved in heme uptake found in pyogenic streptococci and Clostridium novyi.

Molecular Microbiology, 2010

While MtsR has been implicated in GAS virulence, the DNA recognition and full regulatory scope ex... more While MtsR has been implicated in GAS virulence, the DNA recognition and full regulatory scope exerted by the protein are unknown. In this study we identified the shr promoter (Pshr) and mapped MtsR binding to a 69 bp segment in Pshr that overlaps the core promoter elements. A global transcriptional analysis demonstrated that MtsR modulates the expression of 64 genes in GAS, 44 of which were upregulated and 20 were downregulated in the mtsR mutant. MtsR controls genes with diverse functions including metal homeostasis, nucleic acid and amino acid metabolism, and protein fate. Importantly, the MtsR regulon includes mga, emm49 and ska, which are central for GAS pathogenesis. MtsR binding to the promoter region of both negatively and positively regulated genes demonstrates that it functions as a dual regulator. MtsR footprints are large (47-130 bp) and vary between target promoters. A 16 bp motif that consists of an interrupted palindrome is implicated in the DNA recognition by the metalloregulator. In conclusion, we report here that MtsR is a global regulator in GAS that shapes the expression of vital virulence factors and genes involved in metabolic functions and metal transport, and we discuss the implications for the GAS disease process.

Microbiology, 2005

A limited understanding of iron uptake mechanisms is available for Streptococcus pyogenes, a haem... more A limited understanding of iron uptake mechanisms is available for Streptococcus pyogenes, a haemolytic human pathogen capable of using a variety of haemoproteins in addition to ferric and ferrous iron. This study characterizes a transporter named siu (for streptococcal iron uptake), which consists of an ATP-binding protein (SiuA), a substrate-binding protein (SiuD), and two membrane permease subunits (SiuBG). An siuG mutant was constructed and characterized. The mutant demonstrated growth reduction in comparison to the parent strain when grown in complex medium containing iron in the form of blood, haemoglobin or serum. Only a small reduction in the growth of the siuG mutant was observed in medium containing ferric iron. However, in iron uptake assays the siuG mutant showed a decrease of approximately 30 % in Fe 3+ incorporation. Addition of 6 mM haem to the medium inhibited Fe 3+ uptake by the wild-type by 76 %, while addition of protoporphyrin IX did not, suggesting that utilization of haem as an iron source is responsible for the inhibition of Fe 3+ uptake. Inactivation of siuG moderately reduced the ability of haem to inhibit Fe 3+ incorporation by the cells. Inactivation of siaB (encoding a membrane permease of a second iron transporter) had a similar outcome, and inactivation of both transporters had a cumulative effect. These observations implicate both the siu and sia transporters in haem utilization by Strep. pyogenes. Studies in a zebrafish infection model revealed that the siuG mutant was attenuated in both intramuscular and intraperitoneal routes of infection. Together these observations show that the siu system is an iron acquisition pathway in Strep. pyogenes that is important both in vitro and in vivo.

Defense From the Group A Streptococcus by Active and Passive Vaccination With the Streptococcal Hemoprotein Receptor

Journal of Infectious Diseases, 2011

The worldwide burden of the Group A Streptococcus (GAS) primary infection and sequelae is conside... more The worldwide burden of the Group A Streptococcus (GAS) primary infection and sequelae is considerable, although immunization programs with broad coverage of the hyper variable GAS are still missing. We evaluate the streptococcal hemoprotein receptor (Shr), a conserved streptococcal protein, as a vaccine candidate against GAS infection. Mice were immunized intraperitoneally with purified Shr or intranasally with Shr-expressing Lactococcus lactis. The resulting humoral response in serum and secretions was determined. We evaluated protection from GAS infection in mice after active or passive vaccination with Shr, and Shr antiserum was tested for bactericidal activity. A robust Shr-specific immunoglobulin (Ig) G response was observed in mouse serum after intraperitoneal vaccination with Shr. Intranasal immunization elicited both a strong IgG reaction in the serum and a specific IgA reaction in secretions. Shr immunization in both models allowed enhanced protection from systemic GAS challenge. Rabbit Shr antiserum was opsonizing, and mice that were administrated with Shr antiserum prior to the infection demonstrated a significantly higher survival rate than did mice treated with normal rabbit serum. Shr is a promising vaccine candidate that is capable of eliciting bactericidal antibody response and conferring immunity against systemic GAS infection in both passive and active vaccination models.

Journal of Biological Chemistry, 1998

Early metabolic events in Escherichia coli exposed to nalidixic acid, a topoisomerase II inhibito... more Early metabolic events in Escherichia coli exposed to nalidixic acid, a topoisomerase II inhibitor and an inducer of the SOS system, were investigated by in vivo NMR spectroscopy, a technique that permits monitoring of bacteria under controlled physiological conditions. The energetics of AB1157 (wild type) and of its isogenic, SOS-defective mutants, recBC, lexA, and ⌬recA, were studied by 31 P and 19 F NMR before, during, and after exposure to nalidixic acid. The content of the NTP in E. coli embedded in agarose beads and perfused at 36°C was found to be 4.3 ؎ 1.1 ؋ 10 ؊18 mol/cell, yielding a concentration of ϳ2.7 ؎ 0.7 mM. Nalidixic acid induced in the wild type and mutants a rapid 2-fold increase in the content of the NTP, predominantly ATP. This induction did not involve synthesis of uracil derivatives or breakdown of RNA and caused cell proliferation to stop. Removal of nalidixic acid after 40 min of treatment rescued the cells and resulted in a decrease of ATP to control levels and resumption of proliferation. However, in ⌬recA cells, which were more sensitive to the activity of the drug, ATP elevation could not be reversed, and ATP content continued to increase faster than in control cells. The results ruled out association between the elevation of ATP and the induction of the SOS system and suggested involvement of a process reminiscent of apoptosis in the stimulation of ATP synthesis. Thus, the presence of the RecA protein was found to be essential for reversing the ATP increase and cell rescue, possibly by its function in repair of DNA damage.

The Phosphoenolpyruvate Phosphotransferase System in Group A Streptococcus Acts To Reduce Streptolysin S Activity and Lesion Severity during Soft Tissue Infection

Infection and Immunity, 2014

Obtaining essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, is an important process for bacterial patho... more Obtaining essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, is an important process for bacterial pathogens to successfully colonize host tissues. The phosphoenolpyruvate phosphotransferase system (PTS) is the primary mechanism by which bacteria transport sugars and sense the carbon state of the cell. The group A streptococcus (GAS) is a fastidious microorganism that has adapted to a variety of niches in the human body to elicit a wide array of diseases. A ΔptsI mutant (enzyme I [EI] deficient) generated in three different strains of M1T1 GAS was unable to grow on multiple carbon sources (PTS and non-PTS). Complementation with ptsI expressed under its native promoter in single copy was able to rescue the growth defect of the mutant. In a mouse model of GAS soft tissue infection, all ΔptsI mutants exhibited a significantly larger and more severe ulcerative lesion than mice infected with the wild type. Increased transcript levels of sagA and streptolysin S (SLS) activity during exponential-phase growth was observed. We hypothesized that early onset of SLS activity would correlate with the severity of the lesions induced by the ΔptsI mutant. In fact, infection of mice with a ΔptsI sagB double mutant resulted in a lesion comparable to that of either the wild type or a sagB mutant alone. Therefore, a functional PTS is not required for subcutaneous skin infection in mice; however, it does play a role in coordinating virulence factor expression and disease progression.

Infection and Immunity, 2005

Group A streptococcus (GAS) is a common pathogen of the human skin and mucosal surfaces capable o... more Group A streptococcus (GAS) is a common pathogen of the human skin and mucosal surfaces capable of producing a variety of diseases. In this study, we investigated regulation of iron uptake in GAS and the role of a putative transcriptional regulator named MtsR (for Mts repressor) with homology to the DtxR family of metal-dependent regulatory proteins. An mtsR mutant was constructed in NZ131 (M49 serotype) and analyzed. Western blot and RNA analysis showed that mtsR inactivation results in constitutive transcription of the sia (streptococcal iron acquisition) operon, which was negatively regulated by iron in the parent strain. A recombinant MtsR with C-terminal His 6 tag fusion (rMtsR) was cloned and purified. Electrophoretic mobility gel shift assays demonstrated that rMtsR specifically binds to the sia promoter region in an iron-and manganese-dependent manner. Together, these observations indicate that MtsR directly represses the sia operon during cell growth under conditions of high metal levels. Consistent with deregulation of iron uptake, the mtsR mutant is hypersensitive to streptonigrin and hydrogen peroxide, and 55 Fe uptake assays demonstrate that it accumulates 80% ؎ 22.5% more iron than the wild-type strain during growth in complete medium. Studies with a zebrafish infection model revealed that the mtsR mutant is attenuated for virulence in both the intramuscular and the intraperitoneal routes. In conclusion, MtsR, a new regulatory protein in GAS, controls iron homeostasis and has a role in disease production.

Infection and Immunity, 2003

The hemolytic Streptococcus pyogenes can use a variety of heme compounds as an iron source. In th... more The hemolytic Streptococcus pyogenes can use a variety of heme compounds as an iron source. In this study, we investigate hemoprotein utilization by S. pyogenes. We demonstrate that surface proteins contribute to the binding of hemoproteins to S. pyogenes. We identify an ABC transporter from the iron complex family named sia for streptococcal iron acquisition, which consists of a lipoprotein (siaA), membrane permease (siaB), and ATPase (siaC). The sia transporter is part of a highly conserved, iron regulated, 10-gene operon. SiaA, which was localized to the cell membrane, could specifically bind hemoglobin. The operon's first gene encodes a novel bacterial protein that bound hemoglobin, myoglobin, heme-albumin, and hemoglobin-haptoglobin (but not apo-haptoglobin) and therefore was named Shr, for streptococcal hemoprotein receptor. PhoZ fusion and Western blot analysis showed that Shr has a leader peptide and is found in both membrane-bound and soluble forms. An M1 SF370 strain with a polar mutation in shr was more resistant to streptonigrin and hydrogen peroxide, suggesting decreased iron uptake. The addition of hemoglobin to the culture medium increased cell resistance to hydrogen peroxide in SF370 but not in the mutant, implying the sia operon may be involved in hemoglobin-dependent resistance to oxidative stress. The shr mutant demonstrated reduced hemoglobin binding, though cell growth in iron-depleted medium supplemented with hemoglobin, whole blood, or ferric citrate was not affected, suggesting additional systems are involved in hemoglobin utilization. SiaA and Shr are the first hemoprotein receptors identified in S. pyogenes; their possible role in iron capture is discussed. PCR analysis of the sia locus in S. pyogenes isolates. PCR analysis was done with S. pyogenes chromosomal DNA extracted from different strains as a template. The fragments shr-spy1796, spy1796-siaC, and siaC-spy1787 were amplified from each strain by using the primer pairs 204Y-S and 204X-A, 204X-S and 204C-Rev, and 204C-Fwd and 204-ORF5-A, respectively.