lucinda simmons - Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by lucinda simmons
Applied Ergonomics, 2017
As more devices and services are integrated into vehicles, drivers face new opportunities to perf... more As more devices and services are integrated into vehicles, drivers face new opportunities to perform additional tasks while driving. While many studies have explored the detrimental effects of varying task demands on driving performance, there has been little attention devoted to tasks that vary in terms of personal interest or investment-a quality we liken to the concept of task engagement. The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of task engagement on driving performance, subjective appraisals of performance and workload, and various physiological measurements. In this study, 31 participants (M = 37 yrs) completed three driving conditions in a driving simulator: listening to boring auditory material; listening to interesting material; and driving with no auditory material. Drivers were simultaneously monitored using near-infrared spectroscopy, heart monitoring and eye tracking systems. Drivers exhibited less variability in lane keeping and headway maintenance for both auditory conditions; however, response times to critical braking events were longer in the interesting audio condition. Drivers also perceived the interesting material to be less demanding and less complex, although the material was objectively matched for difficulty. Drivers showed a reduced concentration of cerebral oxygenated hemoglobin when listening to interesting material, compared to baseline and boring conditions, yet they exhibited superior recognition for this material. The practical implications, from a safety standpoint, are discussed.
Accident; analysis and prevention, 2016
Driver visual distraction is known to increase the likelihood of being involved in a crash, espec... more Driver visual distraction is known to increase the likelihood of being involved in a crash, especially for long glances inside the vehicle. The detrimental impact of these in-vehicle glances may carry over and disrupt the ongoing processing of information after the driver glances back up on the road. This study explored the effect of different types of visual tasks inside the vehicle on the top-down processes that guide the detection and monitoring of road hazards after the driver glances back towards the road. Using a driving simulator, 56 participants were monitored with an eye tracking system while they navigated various hazardous scenarios in one of four experimental conditions. In all conditions, a potential hazard was visible 4-5s before the driver could strike the potential hazard were it to materialize. All interruptions were exactly two seconds in length. After the interruption the potential hazard again became visible for about a half-second after which the driver passed b...
Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Oct 1, 1992
Safety Science, 2000
In the distributed signal detection theoretic (DSDT) model, the human operator and the warning me... more In the distributed signal detection theoretic (DSDT) model, the human operator and the warning mechanism are independent decision makers who work together as a team. The DSDT demonstrates that the optimal warning threshold, in general, diers from the signal detection theoretic (SDT) threshold, which assumes a single decision maker. This prediction was tested in an experiment where drivers received monetary rewards for making safe passing decisions on a driving simulator. The experiment focused on evaluating the quality of the decision making of the drivers, and not on perceptual issues. A collision avoidance system provided a warning when the probability of an inadequate overtaking gap exceeded a threshold. Three thresholds were tested. The control threshold resulted in no detections or false alarms. The DSDT threshold resulted in some misses but no false alarms. The SDT threshold resulted in no misses but frequent false alarms. As predicted, (1) drivers performed the best when the warning system used the DSDT threshold, and (2) use of the SDT threshold improved performance over the control threshold, even though four of the 10 drivers occasionally ignored the warning and made risky passing attempts in the SDT conditions, possibly because of earlier false alarms. These ®ndings support the conclusion that the DSDT model is a useful, quantitative tool that should be used by warning designers. # Safety Science 36 www.elsevier.com/locate/ssci 0925-7535/00/$ -see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. P I I : S 0 9 2 5 -7 5 3 5 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 4 3 -6
Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 2014
ABSTRACT Driver visual distraction is known to increase the likelihood of being involved in a cra... more ABSTRACT Driver visual distraction is known to increase the likelihood of being involved in a crash, especially for long glances. Recent evidence further suggests that the detrimental impact of these glances carries over and disrupting the ongoing processing of information after the eyes return to the road. This study aimed at exploring the effect of different types of visual disruptions on the top-down processes that guide the detection and monitoring of road hazards. Using a driving simulator, 56 participants were monitored with an eye tracking system while they navigated various hazardous scenarios in one of four experimental conditions: (1) Visual interruptions comprised of spatial, driving unrelated, tasks; (2) visual interruptions comprised of non-spatial, driving unrelated, tasks; (3) visual interruptions with no tasks added; and (4) no visual interruptions. In the first three conditions drivers were momentarily interrupted (either with or without a task) prior to the hazard occurrence. The visual interruption was aimed to simulate a glance inside the vehicle either with or without the need to process driving irrelevant information. Results show that the various types of tasks had differential effects on hazard detection. Implications of this study are discussed.
Accident Analysis & Prevention, 2003
Forty-two licensed drivers were tested in an experiment that required them to respond to an in-ve... more Forty-two licensed drivers were tested in an experiment that required them to respond to an in-vehicle phone at the same time that they were faced with making a crucial stopping decision. Using test track facilities, we also examined the influence of driver gender and driver age on these dual-task response capacities. Each driver was given task practice and then performed a first block of 24 trials, where one trial represented one circuit of the test track. Half of the trials were control conditions in which neither the stop-light was activated nor was the in-vehicle phone triggered. Four trials required only stop-light response and a further four, phone response only. The remaining four trials required the driver to complete each task simultaneously. The order of presentation of specific trials was randomized and the whole sequence was repeated in a second block giving 48 trials per driver. In-vehicle phone response also contained an embedded memory task that was evaluated at the end of each trial circuit. Results confirmed our previous observation that in the dual-task condition there was a slower response to the light change. To compensate for this slowed response, drivers subsequently brake more intensely. Most importantly, we recorded a critical 15% increase in non-response to the stop-light in the presence of the phone distraction task which equates with increased stop-light violations on the open road. These response patterns varied by driver age and driver gender. In particular, age had a large effect on task components that required speed of response to multiple, simultaneous demands. Since driving represents a highly complex and interactive environment, it is not possible to specify a simplistic relationship between these distraction effects and outcome crash patterns. However, we can conclude that such in-vehicle technologies erode performance safety margin and distract drivers from their critical primary task of vehicle control. As such it can be anticipated that a causal relation exists to collision events. This is a crucial concern for all in-vehicle device designers and for the many safety researchers and professionals seeking to reduce the adverse impacts of vehicle collisions.
Transportation Research Record, 1996
... Recovery Time After Glare: An Exper-imental Investigation of Glare After-Effect Under Night .... more ... Recovery Time After Glare: An Exper-imental Investigation of Glare After-Effect Under Night ... Nighttime Legibility of Traffic Signs: Conditions Eliminating the Effects of Driver Age and Disability Glare. ... 8. Attwood, DA The Effects of Headlight Glare on Vehicle Detection at Dusk and ...
Traffic Injury Prevention, 2014
Driver distraction is known to increase crash risk, especially when a driver glances inside the v... more Driver distraction is known to increase crash risk, especially when a driver glances inside the vehicle for especially long periods of time. Though it is clear that such glances increase the risk for the driver when looking inside the vehicle, it is less clear how these glances disrupt the ongoing processing of information outside the vehicle once the driver's eyes return to the road. The present study was aimed at exploring the effect of in-vehicle glances on the top-down processes that guide the detection and monitoring of hazards on the forward roadway. Using a driving simulator, 12 participants were monitored with an eye-tracking system while they navigated various hazardous scenarios. Six participants were momentarily interrupted by a visual secondary task (simulating a glance inside the vehicle) prior to the occurrence of a potential hazard and 6 were not. Eye movement analyses showed that interrupted drivers often failed to continue scanning for a potential hazard when their forward view reappeared, especially when the potential threat could not easily be localized. Additionally, drivers' self-appraisal of workload and performance of the driving task indicated that, contrary to what one might expect, drivers in the interruption condition reported workload levels lower than and performance equal to drivers in the no interruption condition. Drivers who are momentarily disrupted even for a brief duration are at risk of missing important information when they return their gaze to the forward roadway. In addition, because they are not aware of missing this information they are likely to continue engaging in in-vehicle tasks even though they are demonstrably unsafe. The implications for safety, calibration, and targeted remediation are discussed.
Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 2000
In this experiment 12 experienced truck drivers drove a fixed-base driving simulator for three 8-... more In this experiment 12 experienced truck drivers drove a fixed-base driving simulator for three 8-h sessions under simulated nighttime driving conditions. Sessions included (a) no glare, (b) intermittent glare presented in the exterior rearview mirrors to simulate following vehicles, and (c) intermittent glare with electrochromic glare reduction. The driving task combined vehicle control on straight and curved road segments with detection of pedestrians appearing alongside the road and targets appearing in the rearview mirrors. The presence of glare slowed detection of pedestrians and, to a lesser extent, slowed the detection of targets appearing in mirrors. Glare was also associated with increased lane position variability, reduced speed on curves, and, most consistently, increased steering variability. We found only meager evidence that electrochromic glare reduction improved target detection performance and no evidence that glare reduction improved vehicle control, despite the fact that participants consistently voiced positive preferences for glare reduction. The results will aid decision making that requires incorporation of the benefits of electrochromic glare-reducing mirrors.
… Record: Journal of the …, 1999
... measures by run and condition ( SE): (a) mean crash frequency; (b) mean ticket frequency ... ... more ... measures by run and condition ( SE): (a) mean crash frequency; (b) mean ticket frequency ... For example, in some runs, several drivers accumulated large numbers of speeding tickets or ... nap condition, is noteworthy because this measure was designed to eliminate the effect of the ...
Accident Analysis & Prevention, 1999
Twelve experienced truck drivers drove a fixed-base driving simulator for two 8 h sessions, inclu... more Twelve experienced truck drivers drove a fixed-base driving simulator for two 8 h sessions, including: (1) no glare and (2) intermittent glare presented in the exterior rear-view mirrors to simulate headlights from following vehicles. The driving task combined vehicle control on straight and curved road segments with detection of pedestrians appearing alongside the road and targets appearing in the rear-view mirrors. The results provided no evidence to support the hypothesis that prolonged exposure to glare impairs driving performance. However, we found time-related changes in target-detection and critical tracking performance, some of which were consistent with established patterns of diurnal variation. Subjective sleepiness ratings also increased over time. The results were interpreted within a model according to which drivers are able to maintain effective performance at early levels of impairment, thus compensating for increasing feelings of subjective tiredness.
Accident Analysis & Prevention, 2002
The effects of an afternoon nap on alertness and psychomotor performance were assessed during a s... more The effects of an afternoon nap on alertness and psychomotor performance were assessed during a simulated night shift. After a night of partial sleep restriction, eight professional long-haul drivers either slept (nap condition) or engaged in sedentary activities (no-nap condition) from 14:00 to 17:00 h. Alertness and performance testing sessions were conducted at 12:00 (pre-nap baseline), 24:00, 02:30, 05:00 and 07:30 h, and followed 2-h runs in a driving simulator. In the nap condition, the subjects showed lower subjective sleepiness and fatigue, as measured by visual analog scales, and faster reaction times and less variability on psychomotor performance tasks. Electrophysiological indices of arousal during the driving runs also reflected the beneficial effects of the afternoon nap, with lower spectral activity in the theta (4-7.75 Hz), alpha (8-11.75 Hz) and fast theta-slow alpha (6-9.75 Hz) frequency bands of the electroencephalogram, indicating higher arousal levels. Thus, a 3-h napping opportunity ending at 17:00 h improved significantly several indices of alertness and performance measured 7-14 h later.
Applied Ergonomics, 2017
As more devices and services are integrated into vehicles, drivers face new opportunities to perf... more As more devices and services are integrated into vehicles, drivers face new opportunities to perform additional tasks while driving. While many studies have explored the detrimental effects of varying task demands on driving performance, there has been little attention devoted to tasks that vary in terms of personal interest or investment-a quality we liken to the concept of task engagement. The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of task engagement on driving performance, subjective appraisals of performance and workload, and various physiological measurements. In this study, 31 participants (M = 37 yrs) completed three driving conditions in a driving simulator: listening to boring auditory material; listening to interesting material; and driving with no auditory material. Drivers were simultaneously monitored using near-infrared spectroscopy, heart monitoring and eye tracking systems. Drivers exhibited less variability in lane keeping and headway maintenance for both auditory conditions; however, response times to critical braking events were longer in the interesting audio condition. Drivers also perceived the interesting material to be less demanding and less complex, although the material was objectively matched for difficulty. Drivers showed a reduced concentration of cerebral oxygenated hemoglobin when listening to interesting material, compared to baseline and boring conditions, yet they exhibited superior recognition for this material. The practical implications, from a safety standpoint, are discussed.
Accident; analysis and prevention, 2016
Driver visual distraction is known to increase the likelihood of being involved in a crash, espec... more Driver visual distraction is known to increase the likelihood of being involved in a crash, especially for long glances inside the vehicle. The detrimental impact of these in-vehicle glances may carry over and disrupt the ongoing processing of information after the driver glances back up on the road. This study explored the effect of different types of visual tasks inside the vehicle on the top-down processes that guide the detection and monitoring of road hazards after the driver glances back towards the road. Using a driving simulator, 56 participants were monitored with an eye tracking system while they navigated various hazardous scenarios in one of four experimental conditions. In all conditions, a potential hazard was visible 4-5s before the driver could strike the potential hazard were it to materialize. All interruptions were exactly two seconds in length. After the interruption the potential hazard again became visible for about a half-second after which the driver passed b...
Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Oct 1, 1992
Safety Science, 2000
In the distributed signal detection theoretic (DSDT) model, the human operator and the warning me... more In the distributed signal detection theoretic (DSDT) model, the human operator and the warning mechanism are independent decision makers who work together as a team. The DSDT demonstrates that the optimal warning threshold, in general, diers from the signal detection theoretic (SDT) threshold, which assumes a single decision maker. This prediction was tested in an experiment where drivers received monetary rewards for making safe passing decisions on a driving simulator. The experiment focused on evaluating the quality of the decision making of the drivers, and not on perceptual issues. A collision avoidance system provided a warning when the probability of an inadequate overtaking gap exceeded a threshold. Three thresholds were tested. The control threshold resulted in no detections or false alarms. The DSDT threshold resulted in some misses but no false alarms. The SDT threshold resulted in no misses but frequent false alarms. As predicted, (1) drivers performed the best when the warning system used the DSDT threshold, and (2) use of the SDT threshold improved performance over the control threshold, even though four of the 10 drivers occasionally ignored the warning and made risky passing attempts in the SDT conditions, possibly because of earlier false alarms. These ®ndings support the conclusion that the DSDT model is a useful, quantitative tool that should be used by warning designers. # Safety Science 36 www.elsevier.com/locate/ssci 0925-7535/00/$ -see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. P I I : S 0 9 2 5 -7 5 3 5 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 4 3 -6
Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 2014
ABSTRACT Driver visual distraction is known to increase the likelihood of being involved in a cra... more ABSTRACT Driver visual distraction is known to increase the likelihood of being involved in a crash, especially for long glances. Recent evidence further suggests that the detrimental impact of these glances carries over and disrupting the ongoing processing of information after the eyes return to the road. This study aimed at exploring the effect of different types of visual disruptions on the top-down processes that guide the detection and monitoring of road hazards. Using a driving simulator, 56 participants were monitored with an eye tracking system while they navigated various hazardous scenarios in one of four experimental conditions: (1) Visual interruptions comprised of spatial, driving unrelated, tasks; (2) visual interruptions comprised of non-spatial, driving unrelated, tasks; (3) visual interruptions with no tasks added; and (4) no visual interruptions. In the first three conditions drivers were momentarily interrupted (either with or without a task) prior to the hazard occurrence. The visual interruption was aimed to simulate a glance inside the vehicle either with or without the need to process driving irrelevant information. Results show that the various types of tasks had differential effects on hazard detection. Implications of this study are discussed.
Accident Analysis & Prevention, 2003
Forty-two licensed drivers were tested in an experiment that required them to respond to an in-ve... more Forty-two licensed drivers were tested in an experiment that required them to respond to an in-vehicle phone at the same time that they were faced with making a crucial stopping decision. Using test track facilities, we also examined the influence of driver gender and driver age on these dual-task response capacities. Each driver was given task practice and then performed a first block of 24 trials, where one trial represented one circuit of the test track. Half of the trials were control conditions in which neither the stop-light was activated nor was the in-vehicle phone triggered. Four trials required only stop-light response and a further four, phone response only. The remaining four trials required the driver to complete each task simultaneously. The order of presentation of specific trials was randomized and the whole sequence was repeated in a second block giving 48 trials per driver. In-vehicle phone response also contained an embedded memory task that was evaluated at the end of each trial circuit. Results confirmed our previous observation that in the dual-task condition there was a slower response to the light change. To compensate for this slowed response, drivers subsequently brake more intensely. Most importantly, we recorded a critical 15% increase in non-response to the stop-light in the presence of the phone distraction task which equates with increased stop-light violations on the open road. These response patterns varied by driver age and driver gender. In particular, age had a large effect on task components that required speed of response to multiple, simultaneous demands. Since driving represents a highly complex and interactive environment, it is not possible to specify a simplistic relationship between these distraction effects and outcome crash patterns. However, we can conclude that such in-vehicle technologies erode performance safety margin and distract drivers from their critical primary task of vehicle control. As such it can be anticipated that a causal relation exists to collision events. This is a crucial concern for all in-vehicle device designers and for the many safety researchers and professionals seeking to reduce the adverse impacts of vehicle collisions.
Transportation Research Record, 1996
... Recovery Time After Glare: An Exper-imental Investigation of Glare After-Effect Under Night .... more ... Recovery Time After Glare: An Exper-imental Investigation of Glare After-Effect Under Night ... Nighttime Legibility of Traffic Signs: Conditions Eliminating the Effects of Driver Age and Disability Glare. ... 8. Attwood, DA The Effects of Headlight Glare on Vehicle Detection at Dusk and ...
Traffic Injury Prevention, 2014
Driver distraction is known to increase crash risk, especially when a driver glances inside the v... more Driver distraction is known to increase crash risk, especially when a driver glances inside the vehicle for especially long periods of time. Though it is clear that such glances increase the risk for the driver when looking inside the vehicle, it is less clear how these glances disrupt the ongoing processing of information outside the vehicle once the driver's eyes return to the road. The present study was aimed at exploring the effect of in-vehicle glances on the top-down processes that guide the detection and monitoring of hazards on the forward roadway. Using a driving simulator, 12 participants were monitored with an eye-tracking system while they navigated various hazardous scenarios. Six participants were momentarily interrupted by a visual secondary task (simulating a glance inside the vehicle) prior to the occurrence of a potential hazard and 6 were not. Eye movement analyses showed that interrupted drivers often failed to continue scanning for a potential hazard when their forward view reappeared, especially when the potential threat could not easily be localized. Additionally, drivers' self-appraisal of workload and performance of the driving task indicated that, contrary to what one might expect, drivers in the interruption condition reported workload levels lower than and performance equal to drivers in the no interruption condition. Drivers who are momentarily disrupted even for a brief duration are at risk of missing important information when they return their gaze to the forward roadway. In addition, because they are not aware of missing this information they are likely to continue engaging in in-vehicle tasks even though they are demonstrably unsafe. The implications for safety, calibration, and targeted remediation are discussed.
Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 2000
In this experiment 12 experienced truck drivers drove a fixed-base driving simulator for three 8-... more In this experiment 12 experienced truck drivers drove a fixed-base driving simulator for three 8-h sessions under simulated nighttime driving conditions. Sessions included (a) no glare, (b) intermittent glare presented in the exterior rearview mirrors to simulate following vehicles, and (c) intermittent glare with electrochromic glare reduction. The driving task combined vehicle control on straight and curved road segments with detection of pedestrians appearing alongside the road and targets appearing in the rearview mirrors. The presence of glare slowed detection of pedestrians and, to a lesser extent, slowed the detection of targets appearing in mirrors. Glare was also associated with increased lane position variability, reduced speed on curves, and, most consistently, increased steering variability. We found only meager evidence that electrochromic glare reduction improved target detection performance and no evidence that glare reduction improved vehicle control, despite the fact that participants consistently voiced positive preferences for glare reduction. The results will aid decision making that requires incorporation of the benefits of electrochromic glare-reducing mirrors.
… Record: Journal of the …, 1999
... measures by run and condition ( SE): (a) mean crash frequency; (b) mean ticket frequency ... ... more ... measures by run and condition ( SE): (a) mean crash frequency; (b) mean ticket frequency ... For example, in some runs, several drivers accumulated large numbers of speeding tickets or ... nap condition, is noteworthy because this measure was designed to eliminate the effect of the ...
Accident Analysis & Prevention, 1999
Twelve experienced truck drivers drove a fixed-base driving simulator for two 8 h sessions, inclu... more Twelve experienced truck drivers drove a fixed-base driving simulator for two 8 h sessions, including: (1) no glare and (2) intermittent glare presented in the exterior rear-view mirrors to simulate headlights from following vehicles. The driving task combined vehicle control on straight and curved road segments with detection of pedestrians appearing alongside the road and targets appearing in the rear-view mirrors. The results provided no evidence to support the hypothesis that prolonged exposure to glare impairs driving performance. However, we found time-related changes in target-detection and critical tracking performance, some of which were consistent with established patterns of diurnal variation. Subjective sleepiness ratings also increased over time. The results were interpreted within a model according to which drivers are able to maintain effective performance at early levels of impairment, thus compensating for increasing feelings of subjective tiredness.
Accident Analysis & Prevention, 2002
The effects of an afternoon nap on alertness and psychomotor performance were assessed during a s... more The effects of an afternoon nap on alertness and psychomotor performance were assessed during a simulated night shift. After a night of partial sleep restriction, eight professional long-haul drivers either slept (nap condition) or engaged in sedentary activities (no-nap condition) from 14:00 to 17:00 h. Alertness and performance testing sessions were conducted at 12:00 (pre-nap baseline), 24:00, 02:30, 05:00 and 07:30 h, and followed 2-h runs in a driving simulator. In the nap condition, the subjects showed lower subjective sleepiness and fatigue, as measured by visual analog scales, and faster reaction times and less variability on psychomotor performance tasks. Electrophysiological indices of arousal during the driving runs also reflected the beneficial effects of the afternoon nap, with lower spectral activity in the theta (4-7.75 Hz), alpha (8-11.75 Hz) and fast theta-slow alpha (6-9.75 Hz) frequency bands of the electroencephalogram, indicating higher arousal levels. Thus, a 3-h napping opportunity ending at 17:00 h improved significantly several indices of alertness and performance measured 7-14 h later.