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Papers by nasrat adamo

المقايضة واستعمال العملة في النظام النقدي السومري, 2024

Commercial expansion during the Sumerian era necessitated the adoption of a standard currency to ... more Commercial expansion during the Sumerian era necessitated the adoption of a standard currency to control this exchange. Barley became the first standard currency in barter operations and silver was also traded as a valuable standard currency through which the value of barley in circulation could be fixed. Other goods such as taxes, loans, and fines were used for exchange and meeting obligations. Barter developed in some Sumerian cities utilizing an indirect medium of exchange in buying and selling and may also have been used in tax collection for the temple. Such coins were discovered in Uruk. With the development of economic life, the wide variety of goods on offer the inability to use these pieces on a large scale, and their lack in many Mesopotamian cities, people turned to dealing with silver and took it as a standard for fixing prices. The relative stability of silver prices made it an ideal measure for the prices of other goods. This however did not stop the barter of goods between the Sumerian cities and other regions due to the widespread and magnitude of this trade. Mesopotamian goods were exported to destinations such as Magan (currently Oman) and Meluhha (Indus Valley) and were exchanged for copper. Finally, the expansion of trade exchange networks and the increase in its size led to the invention of unified currencies to address the limitations and restrictions imposed by the nature of the barter system. It also required the adoption of unified measures for weights, including the "mina" and the "shekel", while for volumes; the smallest unit was the "sila". Consequently, trade exchange became more advanced by adopting standard measures on the one hand and using standard value goods on the other hand. The latter consisted primarily of barley and silver used to evaluate the value of goods and merchandise. Silver was sometimes accepted for bartering as ingots or rings of limited value in quantities estimated by weight in each commercial transaction. BABBAR" had been used since the fourth millennium BC in the symbolic pictographic writings discovered in the city of Uruk and it meant the shiny yellow metal. Silver, gold, or even bronze did not take on the function of money in all transactions except over a period that extended beyond the Sumerian era. But, despite the widespread use of silver, the direct barter system continued as indicated by the lists of materials and goods exchanged in many later commercial texts. The records also showed that wages were often paid in kind or silver at other times.

Taxation System in Ur III dynasty state , 2024

Tax collection in the Third Dynasty of Ur was done in two different systems applied according to ... more Tax collection in the Third Dynasty of Ur was done in two different systems applied according to the geographical regions of the kingdom: the Bala and the Gun Ma-da systems. The first system was applied in the heartland of the kingdom (Sumer and Akkad), in which the administration collected a large part of the agricultural products of the districts in the aforementioned region in a common fund to redistribute them later to the other districts according to their actual needs, thus enabling the state to use these resources throughout its territory. The contributions of these districts were estimated according to their capabilities. The movement of these products was monitored by administrative employees appointed by the state. As for the districts on the outskirts of the kingdom that depended on rain, they were of great importance in raising livestock due to the availability of vast pasture lands, so the second tax system the Gun Ma-da was applied to these districts and was collected from livestock. This dual tax system was among the reforms introduced by King Šulgi to the administrative and financial systems of the kingdom, whereby the kingdom was divided into two parts that differed in their nature and method of administration and thus in applying the tax system to them. The first part was the kingdom's heartland (Sumer and Akkad) and included the provinces to the south of the lower basin of the Diyala River and up to Babylon in the north. The second part of the kingdom was the peripheral region "ma-da" located north and northeast of the heartland and Akkad) which the Sumerians, especially King "Šulgi" fought to annex. The tax was imposed on them differently and was called the "gun ma-da" tax. The large settlements in the peripheral regions were managed by high-ranking military leaders "Sagina" with civilian rulers. The tax was imposed on all of them, even the officers and soldiers as investors, and it was collected in numbers of sheep and cattle according to their hierarchy. It can be said that these taxes were to provide the necessary resources for wars to fight hostile peoples to Ur in the east, to ensure control over the trade routes, and to provide wealth and social opportunities for the new elite in society to get fiefdoms and privileges. Thus, the third state of "Ur" was quickly obsessed with taxes and the desire to preserve the prestige and wealth acquired by that elite.

The Taxation System in Ur Third Dynasty State, 2024

الضرائب والرسوم في الاقتصاد السومري, 2024

Sumerians knew taxes from early times. This was revealed in their records written in cuneiform sc... more Sumerians knew taxes from early times. This was revealed in their records written in cuneiform script on clay tablets. These taxes were levied on agricultural crops, animal and industrial products and trade. In Lagash for example rate of tax was (10%) which may increase for defence purposes and at times of war. Tributes were also collected from defeated cities. At times new taxes were collected to build new temples, excavate new irrigation canals or dredge old once, in addition to the participation of citizens in these works as corveé. During the third Ur dynasty rule a new form of taxes called “Balla” was introduced and applied within the heartland of the state, whereby the central authority collected large portions of the various districts animal products and crops in a common fund from which all other districts could draw as to their needs. The last three decades of King Šulgi’s reign, however, witnessed many military campaigns to subjugate the peripheral areas of Ur state, establish garrisons and settlements, and grant vast agricultural lands around them to fighters, soldiers, officers, and civil servants, on condition that they pay a tax in kind. By this the “gun ma-da” tax was established; which consisted of numbers of sheep and bulls that were gathered in the city of “Drehem” and then transported to “Puzris-Dagan” at the vicinity of “Nippur”. At times collection of taxes was carried out not without excesses especially during the reigns of some kings of the first "Lagash" dynasty which were characterised by their arbitrariness in imposing taxes and tributes. The most brutal and corrupt of them was King “Lugalanda”, the seventh king of this dynasty, who with his family seized the resources of the temple of god “Ningirsu” and his priests, including lands and animals, as well as employing tax officials “maškim” to harass landowners, cattle overseers, donkey breeders, game overseers “enkud” and abused their power to hoard money for themselves also, and even to extract various fees and unfair charges form the citizens in burial of their dead. In summary, it can be said that tax collection was in the ancient past based on two important matters. The first is that individuals believe the claim of their rulers that they are collecting taxes to please the gods by building temples, digging irrigation canals and spending on their needs, not to mention achieving economic prosperity and social justice, in addition to defending the state against its enemies and protecting peace and civil security at home. The second matter is that if these people refuse to pay those taxes they would be exposed to the wrath of the rulers which meant harsh punishments of killing or imprisonment.

دور المعبد في الاقتصاد السومري, 2024

Contrary to the belief that the Sumerian Economy was monopolised solely by the Temple and Palace,... more Contrary to the belief that the Sumerian Economy was monopolised solely by the Temple and Palace, as forwarded by Anton Deimel in his “temple-state hypothesis” in the 1920’s, a new school of thought emerged in the 1950’s that upheld the idea of private sector participation to large extent in a free economy model based on profit and loss principals and competition. Cuneiform texts from Sumerian city states have revealed archives that belonged to individuals being merchants and dealers and containing records of various types of transactions that aimed at profiting. These were at contrast to archives that belonged to the Palace and Temple which did not pay great attention to this issue. Notwithstanding this, the accumulation of wealth in the Sumerian society and reinvestment of surpluses would not have been possible without the central role of the temple in local and foreign trade and production of goods and agriculture. The temple could then rely on its own resources derived from investing in cultivating its own lands and sharing with the farmers, trading the goods produced in its workshops, and votives and offerings of the people to the gods. Individuals could still cooperate with the Temple and the Palace acting as agents, importers and exporters on their behalves. It seems that the Sumerian Economy departed to some degree from the centralised form of economy towards a freer one giving more freedom to the private sector.

تطور طرق المواصلات والتجارة في عهد السومريين, 2024

Agriculture was the backbone of the Sumerian economy. Just as it met the food needs of the popul... more Agriculture was the backbone of the Sumerian economy. Just as it met the food needs of the population, the export of access crops increased the prosperity and encouraged trade between the city-states themselves and with other outside regions. The need for raw materials and luxury goods necessitated their import from outside Mesopotamia. In turn, the Sumerians exported not only their surplus food products, but also their manufactured clothing, leather products, tools, and pottery, which increased the commercial exchange and established the foundations of market economics known to this day. Active trade with different regions also led to the convergence of many trade routes to the Sumerian cities. There were main roads linking the Sumerian cities with each other and extending towards the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the west and Anatolia in the north. To the north-east, there was a road that penetrated the Zagros Mountains, in addition to the other road extending towards the country of Elam and beyond to the east. The Sumerian traders relied also on rivers to ship their goods between the cities of Mesopotamia and established also sea routes leading to “Dilmun” in what is now called Bahrain and to “Makkan” which is now Oman and reaching south to the Indus valley or “Meluhha”. Boats and ships of all sizes were made to navigate the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to the north and sail to Dilmun, Makkan and Meluhha in the south. Commercial voyages in the Gulf were managed by the state and one example of this is the institution owned by the city of “Girsu” sponsoring this activity and carried out its work through its nearby port “Gu’abba”. There were large and small ships in this port and shipyards servicing those ships. At the same time, “Gu’abba” had a thriving textile industry that employed large number of weavers, so textiles were one of the important exports shipped from this port. Large quantities of barley were exported also from “Girsu” to “Makkan”. Examples of such deals included the export of 600 gur and1800 gur respectively that were recorded on clay tablets in cuneiforms, in addition to many other deals. Copper and other raw materials and precious stones were imported in the same way. Out of the land routes to Iran and Afghanistan, there were two important roads, namely the Khorasan Road and Elam road through which tin, copper, gold, and lapis lazuli were imported, while other roads reached the shores of the Mediterranean and Anatolia were used to import timber, copper and gold and the Sumerians used animals, camels, and carts drawn by oxen or donkeys on these roads. This trade exchange was an important reason for the Sumerian civilization to spread to other regions, and this activity humanity additional impetus towards further human progress.
Keywords: Mesopotamia, Sumerians, Dilmun, Makkan, Meluhha, Girsu, Gu’abba

المقاييس والمكاييل السومرية

Sumerians weights and measures and methods of their recording were developed since the early thir... more Sumerians weights and measures and methods of their recording were developed since the early third millennia parallel to the development of writing from the archaic texts and pictorial texts to the cuneiform writing. This was enhanced also by the progress made in counting and arithmetic. The invention of the sexegesimal system of numbers gave the whole process a considerable leap forward. In the final stage they reached considerable achievements in establishing well defined standardized systems of units and measures and weights. These included all what the needed for measuring lengths, areas, volumes and weights. All these were essential for the Sumerian society to develop and prosper economically and socially whether in flourishing trade or in social relationships that was the strong basis of any successful civilization. Examples of such standard units are the Cubit, for measuring lengths, Šar for areas, Sila for volumes and Shekel for weights. Archaeologist such as Leonard Woolley gave names to the weights they recovered various names according to their different shapes, such as the Sphendonoid, duck and the like.

صناعات التعدين في الاقتصاد السومري

It is well known fact that the Sumerians lacked metal ores within their landscape. These resource... more It is well known fact that the Sumerians lacked metal ores within their landscape. These resources were badly need to the development of their society and civilization which was already flourishing due to the irrigated agriculture revolution they had triggered and the wealth it brought with it. They were, therefore forced to seek these ores from outside regions that they could communicate with, and they managed to do so through active trading. Their commercial skills and provision of appropriate means of transportation along the numerous networks of land roads and waterways played an important role in this. They managed to import these ores and export their own products to all the regions surrounding Sumer, extending from the Indus River basin in the south to Anatolia in the north, and from Baluchistan and northern Afghanistan in the east to the coast of the Mediterranean in the west, so seafaring merchants reached regions such as “Meluhha” “Delmon” and “Makkan”. The ores obtained included those of copper, tin, silver, gold, lead, and some less common metals such as antimony. Sumerians had possessed the necessary skills to work out these raw materials into tools, and all sorts of goods. From copper and bronze, they made picks, axes, chisels, knives, and saws and weapons including spearheads, arrows, swords, daggers, and hooks. They also made vessels, containers, nails, pins, rings, and mirrors. Goldsmiths and silversmiths, who did not only make various types of jewellery, but also inlaid them with imported lapis lazuli, agate, and topaz. They also executed wonderful works of castings using molds of several parts and they hammered sheets of these two metals onto wood panels to print engraved or embossed patterns on them. This is due to their skill in connecting pieces of gold and silver with nails, rivets, or by welding. Many examples of these works were salvaged from the ruins of the Sumerian cities which are exhibited now in famous world museums. Treasures of gold, silver and Jewellery discovered in the Ur III Royal cemetery deserve special mention

صناعات التعدين في الاقتصاد السومري, 2024

صناعة المنسوجات واثرها في الاقتصاد السومري

Textile industry was one of the earliest economic and social activities in Mesopotamia that conti... more Textile industry was one of the earliest economic and social activities in Mesopotamia that continued to grow from the early third millennium throughout the Sumerian, Akkadian, and Ur III dynasty periods. The large number of sheep herds the Sumerians raised, and the need for good clothing dictated the use of wool for this purpose, while the relative ease of obtaining wool, spinning, and weaving it favoured woollen textiles over linen which was reserved for very expensive clothing for kings and important men. Woollen textile industry flourished in almost all Sumerian cities, but specially so in Ur and Lagash. Discovered texts indicate that a large community of people from Meluhha had inhabited the town of" Gu’abba” close to Lagash and its port and practised weaving at a large scale. The development in production reached its peak during the Ur III period when the State had its grip on almost all the industry. The spinning and weaving workshops had employed great numbers of workers especially women and children, who were either slaves or prisoners or from the “arua” class who were consecrated by their families to serve in the temples in religious vows. Woolen textiles were important trading commodity for the Sumerians that was exported to all the other regions around Mesoptamia in exchange of raw materials, such as metal ores, wood. and precious stones in addition to great many other things Sumerian missed in their enviroment. This article goes into the technical details of this industry in addition to the archaeological and historical background

Sumerian Leather Industry, 2024

Tanning of animal hides and skins is an ancient art which had developed throughout thousand of ye... more Tanning of animal hides and skins is an ancient art which had developed throughout thousand of years. In Mesopotamia, the Sumerians practised this art and made leather articles to serve their daily needs as far back as 3500 BC. Evidence of their tanning technology and leather products come from cuneiform texts found inscribed on thousands of clay tablets in the administrative and economical archives salvaged from the ruins of their many cities in south Mesopotamia that were excavated during the last century. Deciphering many of these texts by archaeologists has revealed the details of tanning as practised and wide scope of tools and articles manufactured by the Sumerians then. Moreover, studies have shown that these products served as trading merchandise in commercial dealings within and between the Sumerian cities on one hand and with the surrounding and far away regions on the other. This whole activity gave a strong boost to the Sumerian economy in employing large numbers of craftsmen and artisans, and at the same time, in exchanging these products with raw materials and other badly needed commodities not found in Mesopotamia but obtainable from foreign lands

أساليب وطرق الري التي طورها السومريون, 2024

Irrigated agriculture was the mainstay of progress and prosperity for the Sumerian civilization s... more Irrigated agriculture was the mainstay of progress and prosperity for the Sumerian civilization since the early Sumerian dynasties. So, the Sumerians had to dig canal networks from the Tigris Euphrates Rivers and dredge them annually to maintain and expand the agricultural lands in lower Mesopotamia. At the same time, the floods of these two great rivers threatened everything that the Sumerians had built with drowning and destruction. This pushed them to devise new ways to combat and prevent them. The Sumerians had to construct hydraulic structures to control water, such as cross regulators to divert water to branch canals and others to raise water levels to serve the farthest point in the farms, in addition to adequate water distribution outlets. They also introduced lift irrigation to raise water to the high fields whenever it was not possible to deliver water by gravity making these networks integrated irrigation systems. Archaeological excavations revealed many of these structures and facilities and the names of the kings who implemented them. Archaeological findings tell us also that many disputes over water rights and ownership of agricultural lands had also risen between city-states, which had ended up either through negotiations, or, arbitration, or even war. One example of this is the dispute between the states of Lagash and Umma, where the ambitions of the Umma was to annex one of the most fertile agricultural provinces of Lagash called (Gio-Dina) on the pretext that irrigation of the aforementioned province was done from the aforementioned stream. Despite the end of the war through the mediation of King Mesilim, King of Kish, the continuation of the skirmishes led King Ianna-Atum later to dig a new canal from the Tigris River called (Lumna-Gimduk) to avoid further disputes which developed into the current Gharraf Rive. The developments in irrigation necessitated also advances in fields of science and knowledge, such as, development of topographical surveying methods and tools to control dimensions and depths, mathematics, and trigonometry to draw maps and calculate areas, in addition to methods for calculating volumes to reckon the quantities of sediment dredged from canals annually. Such dredging works meant participation of large groups of labour due to the large volumes of clay that required to be lifted which enhanced social cooperation. As for the Tigris and Euphrates floods control works the Sumerians invented methods and means that remained in use until recently. These included strengthening the embankments by spreading mats (bawari) on their contact face with the flow and pin them down with long wooden rods (hawalesh). They also used bundles of reeds and papyrus, known as (Batkhat) to close the breaches in these embankments, if they occur, and stop them from development which kept them from collapsing.

Study of the manuscript :Northern Mesopotamia in a 19th century Syriac Annalistic Source, 2024

This study is an Arabic translation of the original paper concerning one Syriac manuscript which ... more This study is an Arabic translation of the original paper concerning one Syriac manuscript which was written by the academic Amir Harrak who is a specialist of Syriac and Aramaic studies in Toronto university. Dr Harrak had discovered this manuscript which was titled “Northern Mesopotamia in a 19th century Syriac Annalistic Source” tucked in another manuscript and he transacted it from Syriac into English. Dr Harrak research findings disclosed the name of its author and the time of its writing, and even the place where it was written which happened to be Raban Hurmuzd Monastery in Alqush mountain. The manuscript contains important annals dealing with the Christians persecution by neighbouring Muslims and the sacking of their villages and monasteries. These reflect the troubled security situation at that time under the Ottoman rule

تطور الزراعة عند السومريين

Although people in the Near East knew agriculture since 9000 BC, Sumerians were the pioneers of i... more Although people in the Near East knew agriculture since 9000 BC, Sumerians were the pioneers of irrigated agriculture since 4000BC in south Mesopotamia and in the whole world. This was brought about by the dry, hot climate and the rich water resources of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers which provided them with irrigation water coupled with the industrious mind of the Sumerians. Sumerians were compelled to solve complex hydraulic problems in harnessing the floods of the two rivers and constructing vast irrigation networks. Their hard work, patience, and ingenuity, however, were rewarded by abundant crop yields which made them not only self sufficient but traded the surpluses with other peoples around Sumer. This prosperity led to increased population, growth of societies and the establishment of the first city states in history that fostered communal work in cultivating the land and maintaining the irrigation infra structures, in addition to, law and order and increased internal and external trade. Religion was not absent in this whole process and Sumerians had gods for all types of crops and agricultural processes. Good yields were signs of gods satisfaction while bad once were signs of their anger with them. Main landowners were the Temple, the Palace and Nobility while common people had the chance to have their own lands while they also formed at the same time the bulk of the working force in the fields in addition to slaves. Main raised crops were cereals with barley being at the top of the list due to its good adaptation to soil conditions and its plentiful yield. Wheat came in the next place but it lost favour with time as result of progressing increased soil salinity, a problem which led finally to the doom of the Sumerian Civilization. Other crops grown successfully were millets, oats, legumes, pulses and oil crops, and great variety of vegetables. All sorts of Mideterainan fruits were obtained from trees that were mainly raised in the under canopy of date palms. Date Palms held a special regard in the Sumerian tradition as it provided food rich with nutrients, wood for construction, fronds for making mats and baskets while providing shade from direct scorching sun for all sorts of other plants. In summary, the long story of the rise and fall of the Sumerian Civilization cannot be written without having agriculture as a central theme in this amazing story.

Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering, 2020

Sumerians were the first People in history to invent the cuneiform script, which made the reporti... more Sumerians were the first People in history to invent the cuneiform script, which made the reporting of their achievements possible. Therefore, this had marked the beginning of written history. Moreover, their experience as pioneers in practicing large-scale irrigation is detailed in this paper, which also describes the intricate canal networks systems they had constructed together with the engineering works related to them. The land was flat and the two rivers had built themselves to higher levels than the surrounding lands by the continuous silting process, so gravity irrigation became possible and the people took the opportunity to construct these networks and establish their communities here. Description of the political and social developments, which led to the establishment of the city-states, is also given together with a list of the most prominent ones, and their locations are shown on a map indicating the heartland of Samaria in southern part of Iraq; close to the Persian Gulf. Wars between some city-states over water rights are detailed with their results in excavation of new canals, which are described here. A vivid description of the irrigation canals and the hydraulic structures that were needed and built are also presented which show that the Sumerians were versed in hydraulic principles, while in illustrating their methods of land preparation, seeding, irrigation and harvesting indicates they were skillful farmers. Moreover, the tools and implements invented for field operations such as those for water control, land preparation, seeding and harvesting, which are fully described, show that they were also inventors. The type of crops produced are given special attention and the abundance of yield they obtained was outlined indicating that surpluses had encouraged trading with other parts outside Samaria and so new commercial relations were developed. The economic aspects of this civilization such as wages and loans for farmers, work

Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering, 2020

The first steps taken by Man in the long journey towards the establishment of the first known set... more The first steps taken by Man in the long journey towards the establishment of the first known settled society. From the end of the last ice age to this, point which had taken 12000 years. The book ...

Engineering, 2023

Iraq, like most Middle Eastern countries, is suffering from the effects of Climate Change. The ef... more Iraq, like most Middle Eastern countries, is suffering from the effects of Climate Change. The effects are in form of deterioration and degradation of lands, including agricultural lands, an increase in dust storms, an increase in daily temperatures, decreasing annual rainfall, decreasing annual snowfall, decreasing annual water income in the main rivers, streams and ephemeral wadis, increasing of desertification, increasing of areas covered by sand dunes, decreasing of green areas, decreasing of wetlands. According to regional studies, the living conditions and environment after 3-4 decades in Iraq and some neighboring countries will be very difficult, especially due to increasing daily temperatures and decreasing annual rainfall. To conduct the current study, we have reviewed tens of published articles, and scientific reports followed by relevant interviews on TV, and daily observations of events caused by climate change. One of the most common reasons for climate change is the emission of CO 2 , and the most common reason contributing to the increase of the effects of climate change is the absence of awareness in the community and the deficient official preparedness. The preparedness, however, to avoid and/ or mitigate the effects of climate change is very low, not only on the governmental level but also on popular scales. Therefore, the harsh effect of climate change increasing in severity and causing great damage to infrastructure, and personal properties, and is leading to more causalities. Recommendations to mitigate the consequences of climate change are given in two scales, governmental and popular.

المقايضة واستعمال العملة في النظام النقدي السومري, 2024

Taxation System in Ur III dynasty state , 2024

The Taxation System in Ur Third Dynasty State, 2024

الضرائب والرسوم في الاقتصاد السومري, 2024

دور المعبد في الاقتصاد السومري, 2024

تطور طرق المواصلات والتجارة في عهد السومريين, 2024

المقاييس والمكاييل السومرية

صناعات التعدين في الاقتصاد السومري

صناعات التعدين في الاقتصاد السومري, 2024

صناعة المنسوجات واثرها في الاقتصاد السومري

Sumerian Leather Industry, 2024

أساليب وطرق الري التي طورها السومريون, 2024

Study of the manuscript :Northern Mesopotamia in a 19th century Syriac Annalistic Source, 2024

تطور الزراعة عند السومريين

Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering, 2020

Engineering, 2023

ميزوبوتاميا ونهري دجلة وألفرات في ألتاريخ

ميزوبوتاميا أو أرض مابين ألنهرين هي ألحوض ألمشترك لنهري دجلة والفرات. وقد تعددت ألنظريات في نشوء ... more ميزوبوتاميا أو أرض مابين ألنهرين هي ألحوض ألمشترك لنهري دجلة والفرات. وقد تعددت ألنظريات في نشوء هذا ألحوض كما نراه أليوم ، غير أن ألنهرن ألعظيمين يبقيان ألعاملان ألرئيسيان في ترسيب هذه ألارض ألتي أحتضنت أول حضارة في تأريخ ألبشرية وأستمرت حاضنة للعديد منها خلال ألسبعة ألاف سنة ألماضية. وقد عمل ألنهران على صياغة طوبوغرافية ألارض وطابعها ألفيزيوغرافي من خلال ألترسيب ألمستمر وتغيير مجريهما ألمتكرر، وأضافت ألفيضانات ألمتكرره عبلر ألتأريخ وتكوين ألاهوار على أنتشار ألمدن والمستوطنات ألحضرية ألتي عرفتها تلك الحضارات . ويبحث ألمقال في هذه ألمتغيرات للفترة ألتي أمتدت من ألالفية ألثالثة للميلاد حتى عصور متأخرة عن ذلك كثيرا

سد ألكفرة . من سدود مصر ألقديمة , 2020

Sadd-el-Kafara, as the structure was known by the early Muslims, which is translated as "dam of t... more Sadd-el-Kafara, as the structure was known by the early Muslims, which is translated as "dam of the unbelievers", as its origin dates back to pre-Islamic times, was investigated in detail for the first time in 1982. The dam was constructed in the era of the Old Egyptian Empire, about 2600 BC, and thus represents, in the history of hydraulic engineering, the first attempt at storing water on a large scale. The dam's purpose was apparently to protect installations in the lower wadi and in the Nile valley from the frequent and sudden floods following heavy rainfalls. By modern standards, the dam is stable and would have withstood the floods reasonably to be expected if it had been completed. However, a flood during the construction period led to its destruction, followed by a catastrophic flood wave. As a consequence, the construction work was abandoned. The design was basically correct and the dam was adequately protected from damage caused by water bypassing the dam on the left bank or overtopping. It was therefore a tragedy that an unexpected flood during the period of construction should have created such a disaster. Even after 4500 years and on the basis of all our present-day knowledge and experience, the greatest respect must be paid to the Egyptian engineers of the Old Empire for having had the courage to construct this dam with the limited technological means and the scarce scientific knowledge at their disposal. They have all our sympathy as the failure was not caused by faulty design, but by natural phenomena which could not be foreseen at that time.

History of Irrigation and agriculture in the Land between the Two Rivers, 2019

This book gives a comprehensive description of the growth of civilization that took place in anci... more This book gives a comprehensive description of the growth of civilization that took place in ancient Iraq; which embraces the two rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, from prehistory until the fall of Baghdad in 1258. It deals with the progress of life in this area of the world known by the Greek as Mesopotamia and later by Muslims as Al-Sawad. The invention of irrigated agriculture by the Sumerians was taken as the starting point of this civilization and the book gives very detailed information on this matter during all the following times. The impacts of irrigation and agriculture on the peoples of this region and their lives are described detailing the political, social and economic settings. The book serves to outline the mixing and blending of the various cultures which characterized the successive empires that had ruled here and how people had managed the frequent wars and upheavals during this long history. The book with more than 700 online references and so many illustrating figures may help researches in this field and can enlighten them on even minor details.