nehemia friedland - Academia.edu (original) (raw)
Papers by nehemia friedland
Rev Psiquiatr, Dec 1, 1992
The Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict, 1988
Terrorism has aroused much concern in recent years. Such concern can hardly be attributed to terr... more Terrorism has aroused much concern in recent years. Such concern can hardly be attributed to terrorism’s physical effects. As a form of warfare, terrorism is probably the least lethal, and as a source of human suffering it undoubtedly trails far behind certain diseases, natural disasters, or man-made problems such as road accidents or common criminal activity. The undeniable impact that terrorism has had on public mood and, in some cases, on government policies has resulted from factors other than its toll in human lives. Most important among these factors is terrorism’s ability to undermine government legitimacy as a guardian of public peace and as a trustee of the democratic decision-making process. In this regard, the seizure of hostages and the issuing of demands as a condition for their release is the most effective terrorist tactic.
Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 1998
Chance and luck are conceived as two distinct causal agents that effect different results. The pr... more Chance and luck are conceived as two distinct causal agents that effect different results. The present study examined the proposition that persons who habitually attribute the outcome of random events to chance (chance-oriented persons) and those who prefer to attribute such outcomes to luck (luck-oriented persons) cope differently with decision making under uncertainty. Chance-oriented persons decide according to given or estimated odds that define the decision problem. Luck-oriented persons, on the other hand, rely on self-attributions of personal luck, and ignore the probabilities of decision outcomes. The hypothesized qualitative difference between the approaches of chance- and luck-oriented persons to decision making under uncertainty was supported substantially by the findings. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1990
Research carried out to date has yielded inconsistent results regarding the manner in which the s... more Research carried out to date has yielded inconsistent results regarding the manner in which the severity and certainty of threatened penalties combine to affect deterrence. While some studies presented evidence showing an interactive combination, others yielded an additive pattern. The present study tested and supported the proposition that the process whereby the two variables combine depends on the type of penalty with which a person is threatened. In the case of penalties the severity of which can be psychologically weighed in interval values, the combined effect is multiplicative or interactive. On the other hand, when the severity of a penalty can be expressed only ordinally, the combined effect is largely additive.
Journal of Conflict Resolution, 1978
A cross-national experimental study examining perceptions of four procedural models for adjudicat... more A cross-national experimental study examining perceptions of four procedural models for adjudicative conflict resolution was conducted in four countries—the United States, Britain, France, and West Germany—whose legal procedures are based on differing adjudicative models. One hundred seventy-eight subjects rated the four models on a number of dimensions, including their preference for using the model for settling a conflict, the fairness of the model, and the amount of control over the resolution of the conflict vested in each of several roles. Approximately half of the subjects at each site were asked to assume the role of defendant in the adjudicated conflict, and half were asked to assume the role of plaintiff. The results showed a general preference for more “adversary” (disputant-controlled) models over more “inquisitorial” (adjudicator-controlled) models. This preference was not limited to subjects from nations (the United States and Britain) whose legal systems are based on a...
Journal of Human Stress, 1982
The training of individuals for task performance under stress poses a dilemma concerning the degr... more The training of individuals for task performance under stress poses a dilemma concerning the degree to which stressor characteristics of the criterion situation should be represented with a high degree of fidelity during training. High fidelity training is likely to reduce the novelty of the criterion situation and familiarize the trainee with his emotional and physiological reactions to stress. On the other hand, the exposure of the trainee to high stress levels during training might interfere with task acquisition and intensify his fears and emotional sensitivity. This difficulty might be overcome with "graduated fidelity training" whereby the trainee is exposed to gradually increasing stressor intensities, starting with very low intensities and reaching, by the end of training, criterionlevel stressor intensities. The empirical evaluation of this method, carried out in the present study, suggested that it is potentially more effective than high fidelity training. However, two conditions are necessary for the realization of this potential effectiveness. First, the trainee must be informed about the upper limit of stressor intensity which he might encounter in the course of training. In the absence of such information, graduated fidelity training might become highly ineffective. Second, the trainee has to perceive high quality performance as being instrumental for the removal or attenuation of stressors.
Journal of Human Stress, 1984
The relative effectiveness of five procedures for the training of individuals to perform tasks un... more The relative effectiveness of five procedures for the training of individuals to perform tasks under stress was tested in a criterion situation, where subjects were requested to perform a visual search task under the threat of electric shocks. During training on the task, different groups of subjects received shocks of criterion-level intensity; milder than criterion-level intensity; gradually increasing intensity; randomly varying intensity. The last group received no shocks at all. The results pointed to three conditions for the enhancement of training effectiveness: minimal interference of exposure to stressors with task acquisition, familiarity with stressors characteristic of the criterion situation, and absence of unrealistic expectations about future stressors. However, none of the five training procedures meets all three conditions. Implications for the design of procedures whereby persons can be trained to perform proficiently under stress are discussed.
Journal of Human Stress, 1986
Studies on the training of individuals for task performance in stressful situations have typicall... more Studies on the training of individuals for task performance in stressful situations have typically evaluated procedures that simultaneously expose trainees to tasks and to stressors. Such procedures might create a mutual interference of the stressor with task acquisition, or conversely, of preoccupation with task acquisition with familiarization with the stressors. Using a sample of 180 males, the present study compared a procedure that temporally separates task acquisition from exposure to stressors ("phased training") with the more typical approach which combines the two ("combined training"). The comparison was carried out under varying degrees of stressor-fidelity representation in the course of training, and under two degrees of contingency between quality of task performance and the possibility of avoiding stress. The main result indicates that phased and combined training are equally effective under conditions of noncontingency. In a contingent condition, on the other hand, phased training proves to be significantly superior.
The Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict, 1988
Political terrorism is obviously not new. Politically motivated assassination, arson, kidnapping,... more Political terrorism is obviously not new. Politically motivated assassination, arson, kidnapping, and other forms of violence date back to the genesis of human society. However, in the last two decades the phenomenon has reached unprecedented and unforeseen dimensions. Terrorist groups proliferate (cf. Alexander & Gleason, 1981) and terrorist incidents now claim, on the average, more lives than ever before (Jenkins, 1983).
Psychiatry Research, 1995
No abnormalities in magnetic resonance images were recorded in patients with posttraumatic stress... more No abnormalities in magnetic resonance images were recorded in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder other than an increased incidence (50%) of a small cleft in the callosal-septal interface, a cavum of the septum pellucidum. A similar grade of cavum was obtained in 14% of normal volunteers matched for age, socioeconomic background, and military experience. The cavum is believed to have antedated the disorder and is conceived to be a neurodevelopmental aberration. The possibility that the cavum is a marker of vulnerability to stress in psychopathology is discussed.
Negotiation Journal, 1986
In recent years hostage taking has become a frequently used tactic of political terrorists. Besid... more In recent years hostage taking has become a frequently used tactic of political terrorists. Besides generating terror, hostage taking can also achieve the tangible outcome of ransom as well as the intangible, critically important political outcome of forcing governments to negotiate with-and possibly yield to-groups they would be otherwise reluctant to recognize. The potential impact of a hostage"taking incident intensifies in direct proportion to the duration of the incident and the mass media coverage it receives. This coverage not only highlights the actions of the terrorists and the fate of their hostages, but also exposes the behavior of authorities to immediate public scrutiny. These unique features of hostage taking assure its repeated use by terrorists. Modern hostage incidents have varied considerably in both development and outcomes. Sometimes authorities have hastily capitulated (e.g. , the 1976 Croatian skyjacking) while at other times target governments have steadfastly refused to concede (e.g., the 1978 Moro case in Italy and Schleier's in West Germany, 1977) or have mounted complex and hazardous rescue operations (e.g., the 1976 Entebbe raid, the 1977 Mogadishu raid and the aborted U.S. effort to free American hostages in Iran in 1980). Clearly, the circumstances and personalities involved in each hostage incident differ and seem to defy generalization. Some generalizations are pOSSible, nevertheless. In my opinion, the probability that a hostage incident can be peacefully resolved via bargaining or, by contrast, become a potentially violent test of brinkmanship generally depends on two factors: 1. The perpetrators' immediate objectives; and 2. The established policy of the target government toward hostage tactics. Both of these factors have a direct effect on bargaining and brinkman-Ship. It follows that an analysis of these factors and linkages between them can yield some useful tactical principles for the settlement of hostage incidents; these factors are discussed in the first section of the article. Hostage incidents differ in their likelihood of either being resolved via bargaining or, alternatively, degenerating into contests of brinkmanship. Bargaining and brinkmanship in hostage situations are discussed in the second section of the paper, while the third section offers some tactical advice on the management of hostage incidents. This advice bears primarily on those incidents where a negotiated solution is difficult or impossible, that is, incidents that are dominated by the dynamicS of brinkmanship.
Negotiation Journal, 1990
Western academe to formal, linguistically represented theory to insufficient attention to the cri... more Western academe to formal, linguistically represented theory to insufficient attention to the critical distinction between theory and its representations. The result, they hold, has been the emergence of an unjustified and potentially harmful cleavage between ''two tightly related forms of intellectual practice" (p. 115) which merely differ in their mode of representation. Katz and Thorson conclude that the separation of theory and practice, and the view that the two are in competition, is pernicious. The separation, which stems from the confusion between theory and its representation, "leads to the mistaken notion that academic writing stands to the side of practice rather than itself being a particular form of practice, and that trainers, intervenors, and consultants do 'practice' but not theory" (p. 117). Theory, the authors believe, involves a core of knowledge, a form of representation and the development of alternative forms of representation to facilitate its exposition to a variety of audiences. Undue concern with the theorypractice distinction inappropriately focuses attention on issues of representation. The core issue, they feel, is not whether theory is represented in a particular way, but whether it is represented in a way that furthers understanding and facilitates application. Katz and Thorson's argument is beset by two flaws. The first concerns the distinction between theory and its representation. The second resides in their defmition of theory.
Military Psychology, 1992
Training effective task performance in stressful situations requires that the following condition... more Training effective task performance in stressful situations requires that the following conditions be met: (a) Trainees should be exposed to and familiarized with stressors characteristic of the criterion situation; such stressors should be introduced into the training process in a manner that (b) prevents the build-up of anxiety and (c) minimizes interference with acquisition of skills that the training is designed to promote. These requirements present an incongruence, requiring approaches to training that are specially designed to circumvent it. Research on three such approaches is reviewed in this article: Graduated-intensity training seeks to reconcile the three requirements by exposing trainees to stressors that intensify gradually. Phased training deals with skills acquisition and exposure to stressors in separate phases of the training process. Customized training seeks to heighten trainees' familiarity with criterion stressors while minimizing their deleterious effects by adjusting stressor intensity according to trainees' personality dispositions. Research results, considered in light of the constraints and exigencies of military training, point to phased training as the most promising approach to training effective performance in stressful situations. Combat training effectiveness is tested under conditions of extreme psychological stress. Although much progress has been made in the development of such training (cf. Gagne, 1962; Goldstein & Rittenhouse, 1954; Orlanski & String, 1977), there remains considerable ambiguity regarding means to bolster trainees' abilities to cope with stressors characteristic of criterion situations (e.g., actual combat). Much of this ambiguity results from divergence of opinion among Requests for reprints should be sent to Nehemia Friedland,
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1971
A sample of 80 boys and girls attending the 12th grade of academic high schools in Israel was ask... more A sample of 80 boys and girls attending the 12th grade of academic high schools in Israel was asked to rank five occupations according to their individual preferences. The sample was divided into four equal groups and given five questionnaires, one for each occupation, consisting of intrinsic and extrinsic needs. The questionnaire was made up of a different combination of needs for each group. A positive correlation was found between the occupational preference ranking and the intrinsic but not the extrinsic needs.
Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 2000
Rev Psiquiatr, Dec 1, 1992
The Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict, 1988
Terrorism has aroused much concern in recent years. Such concern can hardly be attributed to terr... more Terrorism has aroused much concern in recent years. Such concern can hardly be attributed to terrorism’s physical effects. As a form of warfare, terrorism is probably the least lethal, and as a source of human suffering it undoubtedly trails far behind certain diseases, natural disasters, or man-made problems such as road accidents or common criminal activity. The undeniable impact that terrorism has had on public mood and, in some cases, on government policies has resulted from factors other than its toll in human lives. Most important among these factors is terrorism’s ability to undermine government legitimacy as a guardian of public peace and as a trustee of the democratic decision-making process. In this regard, the seizure of hostages and the issuing of demands as a condition for their release is the most effective terrorist tactic.
Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 1998
Chance and luck are conceived as two distinct causal agents that effect different results. The pr... more Chance and luck are conceived as two distinct causal agents that effect different results. The present study examined the proposition that persons who habitually attribute the outcome of random events to chance (chance-oriented persons) and those who prefer to attribute such outcomes to luck (luck-oriented persons) cope differently with decision making under uncertainty. Chance-oriented persons decide according to given or estimated odds that define the decision problem. Luck-oriented persons, on the other hand, rely on self-attributions of personal luck, and ignore the probabilities of decision outcomes. The hypothesized qualitative difference between the approaches of chance- and luck-oriented persons to decision making under uncertainty was supported substantially by the findings. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1990
Research carried out to date has yielded inconsistent results regarding the manner in which the s... more Research carried out to date has yielded inconsistent results regarding the manner in which the severity and certainty of threatened penalties combine to affect deterrence. While some studies presented evidence showing an interactive combination, others yielded an additive pattern. The present study tested and supported the proposition that the process whereby the two variables combine depends on the type of penalty with which a person is threatened. In the case of penalties the severity of which can be psychologically weighed in interval values, the combined effect is multiplicative or interactive. On the other hand, when the severity of a penalty can be expressed only ordinally, the combined effect is largely additive.
Journal of Conflict Resolution, 1978
A cross-national experimental study examining perceptions of four procedural models for adjudicat... more A cross-national experimental study examining perceptions of four procedural models for adjudicative conflict resolution was conducted in four countries—the United States, Britain, France, and West Germany—whose legal procedures are based on differing adjudicative models. One hundred seventy-eight subjects rated the four models on a number of dimensions, including their preference for using the model for settling a conflict, the fairness of the model, and the amount of control over the resolution of the conflict vested in each of several roles. Approximately half of the subjects at each site were asked to assume the role of defendant in the adjudicated conflict, and half were asked to assume the role of plaintiff. The results showed a general preference for more “adversary” (disputant-controlled) models over more “inquisitorial” (adjudicator-controlled) models. This preference was not limited to subjects from nations (the United States and Britain) whose legal systems are based on a...
Journal of Human Stress, 1982
The training of individuals for task performance under stress poses a dilemma concerning the degr... more The training of individuals for task performance under stress poses a dilemma concerning the degree to which stressor characteristics of the criterion situation should be represented with a high degree of fidelity during training. High fidelity training is likely to reduce the novelty of the criterion situation and familiarize the trainee with his emotional and physiological reactions to stress. On the other hand, the exposure of the trainee to high stress levels during training might interfere with task acquisition and intensify his fears and emotional sensitivity. This difficulty might be overcome with "graduated fidelity training" whereby the trainee is exposed to gradually increasing stressor intensities, starting with very low intensities and reaching, by the end of training, criterionlevel stressor intensities. The empirical evaluation of this method, carried out in the present study, suggested that it is potentially more effective than high fidelity training. However, two conditions are necessary for the realization of this potential effectiveness. First, the trainee must be informed about the upper limit of stressor intensity which he might encounter in the course of training. In the absence of such information, graduated fidelity training might become highly ineffective. Second, the trainee has to perceive high quality performance as being instrumental for the removal or attenuation of stressors.
Journal of Human Stress, 1984
The relative effectiveness of five procedures for the training of individuals to perform tasks un... more The relative effectiveness of five procedures for the training of individuals to perform tasks under stress was tested in a criterion situation, where subjects were requested to perform a visual search task under the threat of electric shocks. During training on the task, different groups of subjects received shocks of criterion-level intensity; milder than criterion-level intensity; gradually increasing intensity; randomly varying intensity. The last group received no shocks at all. The results pointed to three conditions for the enhancement of training effectiveness: minimal interference of exposure to stressors with task acquisition, familiarity with stressors characteristic of the criterion situation, and absence of unrealistic expectations about future stressors. However, none of the five training procedures meets all three conditions. Implications for the design of procedures whereby persons can be trained to perform proficiently under stress are discussed.
Journal of Human Stress, 1986
Studies on the training of individuals for task performance in stressful situations have typicall... more Studies on the training of individuals for task performance in stressful situations have typically evaluated procedures that simultaneously expose trainees to tasks and to stressors. Such procedures might create a mutual interference of the stressor with task acquisition, or conversely, of preoccupation with task acquisition with familiarization with the stressors. Using a sample of 180 males, the present study compared a procedure that temporally separates task acquisition from exposure to stressors ("phased training") with the more typical approach which combines the two ("combined training"). The comparison was carried out under varying degrees of stressor-fidelity representation in the course of training, and under two degrees of contingency between quality of task performance and the possibility of avoiding stress. The main result indicates that phased and combined training are equally effective under conditions of noncontingency. In a contingent condition, on the other hand, phased training proves to be significantly superior.
The Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict, 1988
Political terrorism is obviously not new. Politically motivated assassination, arson, kidnapping,... more Political terrorism is obviously not new. Politically motivated assassination, arson, kidnapping, and other forms of violence date back to the genesis of human society. However, in the last two decades the phenomenon has reached unprecedented and unforeseen dimensions. Terrorist groups proliferate (cf. Alexander & Gleason, 1981) and terrorist incidents now claim, on the average, more lives than ever before (Jenkins, 1983).
Psychiatry Research, 1995
No abnormalities in magnetic resonance images were recorded in patients with posttraumatic stress... more No abnormalities in magnetic resonance images were recorded in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder other than an increased incidence (50%) of a small cleft in the callosal-septal interface, a cavum of the septum pellucidum. A similar grade of cavum was obtained in 14% of normal volunteers matched for age, socioeconomic background, and military experience. The cavum is believed to have antedated the disorder and is conceived to be a neurodevelopmental aberration. The possibility that the cavum is a marker of vulnerability to stress in psychopathology is discussed.
Negotiation Journal, 1986
In recent years hostage taking has become a frequently used tactic of political terrorists. Besid... more In recent years hostage taking has become a frequently used tactic of political terrorists. Besides generating terror, hostage taking can also achieve the tangible outcome of ransom as well as the intangible, critically important political outcome of forcing governments to negotiate with-and possibly yield to-groups they would be otherwise reluctant to recognize. The potential impact of a hostage"taking incident intensifies in direct proportion to the duration of the incident and the mass media coverage it receives. This coverage not only highlights the actions of the terrorists and the fate of their hostages, but also exposes the behavior of authorities to immediate public scrutiny. These unique features of hostage taking assure its repeated use by terrorists. Modern hostage incidents have varied considerably in both development and outcomes. Sometimes authorities have hastily capitulated (e.g. , the 1976 Croatian skyjacking) while at other times target governments have steadfastly refused to concede (e.g., the 1978 Moro case in Italy and Schleier's in West Germany, 1977) or have mounted complex and hazardous rescue operations (e.g., the 1976 Entebbe raid, the 1977 Mogadishu raid and the aborted U.S. effort to free American hostages in Iran in 1980). Clearly, the circumstances and personalities involved in each hostage incident differ and seem to defy generalization. Some generalizations are pOSSible, nevertheless. In my opinion, the probability that a hostage incident can be peacefully resolved via bargaining or, by contrast, become a potentially violent test of brinkmanship generally depends on two factors: 1. The perpetrators' immediate objectives; and 2. The established policy of the target government toward hostage tactics. Both of these factors have a direct effect on bargaining and brinkman-Ship. It follows that an analysis of these factors and linkages between them can yield some useful tactical principles for the settlement of hostage incidents; these factors are discussed in the first section of the article. Hostage incidents differ in their likelihood of either being resolved via bargaining or, alternatively, degenerating into contests of brinkmanship. Bargaining and brinkmanship in hostage situations are discussed in the second section of the paper, while the third section offers some tactical advice on the management of hostage incidents. This advice bears primarily on those incidents where a negotiated solution is difficult or impossible, that is, incidents that are dominated by the dynamicS of brinkmanship.
Negotiation Journal, 1990
Western academe to formal, linguistically represented theory to insufficient attention to the cri... more Western academe to formal, linguistically represented theory to insufficient attention to the critical distinction between theory and its representations. The result, they hold, has been the emergence of an unjustified and potentially harmful cleavage between ''two tightly related forms of intellectual practice" (p. 115) which merely differ in their mode of representation. Katz and Thorson conclude that the separation of theory and practice, and the view that the two are in competition, is pernicious. The separation, which stems from the confusion between theory and its representation, "leads to the mistaken notion that academic writing stands to the side of practice rather than itself being a particular form of practice, and that trainers, intervenors, and consultants do 'practice' but not theory" (p. 117). Theory, the authors believe, involves a core of knowledge, a form of representation and the development of alternative forms of representation to facilitate its exposition to a variety of audiences. Undue concern with the theorypractice distinction inappropriately focuses attention on issues of representation. The core issue, they feel, is not whether theory is represented in a particular way, but whether it is represented in a way that furthers understanding and facilitates application. Katz and Thorson's argument is beset by two flaws. The first concerns the distinction between theory and its representation. The second resides in their defmition of theory.
Military Psychology, 1992
Training effective task performance in stressful situations requires that the following condition... more Training effective task performance in stressful situations requires that the following conditions be met: (a) Trainees should be exposed to and familiarized with stressors characteristic of the criterion situation; such stressors should be introduced into the training process in a manner that (b) prevents the build-up of anxiety and (c) minimizes interference with acquisition of skills that the training is designed to promote. These requirements present an incongruence, requiring approaches to training that are specially designed to circumvent it. Research on three such approaches is reviewed in this article: Graduated-intensity training seeks to reconcile the three requirements by exposing trainees to stressors that intensify gradually. Phased training deals with skills acquisition and exposure to stressors in separate phases of the training process. Customized training seeks to heighten trainees' familiarity with criterion stressors while minimizing their deleterious effects by adjusting stressor intensity according to trainees' personality dispositions. Research results, considered in light of the constraints and exigencies of military training, point to phased training as the most promising approach to training effective performance in stressful situations. Combat training effectiveness is tested under conditions of extreme psychological stress. Although much progress has been made in the development of such training (cf. Gagne, 1962; Goldstein & Rittenhouse, 1954; Orlanski & String, 1977), there remains considerable ambiguity regarding means to bolster trainees' abilities to cope with stressors characteristic of criterion situations (e.g., actual combat). Much of this ambiguity results from divergence of opinion among Requests for reprints should be sent to Nehemia Friedland,
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1971
A sample of 80 boys and girls attending the 12th grade of academic high schools in Israel was ask... more A sample of 80 boys and girls attending the 12th grade of academic high schools in Israel was asked to rank five occupations according to their individual preferences. The sample was divided into four equal groups and given five questionnaires, one for each occupation, consisting of intrinsic and extrinsic needs. The questionnaire was made up of a different combination of needs for each group. A positive correlation was found between the occupational preference ranking and the intrinsic but not the extrinsic needs.
Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 2000