Geoff Smith | Independent Researcher (original) (raw)

Papers by Geoff Smith

Ordnance Society Newsletter, 2023

The earliest reference to storage and transport of gunpowder comes from the Tower Inventories whi... more The earliest reference to storage and transport of gunpowder comes from the Tower Inventories which speaks of white leather bags. Not a bad choice of materiel being moderately both fire and water resistant. However as domestic production of gunpowder in England became established it was placed under royal control, specifically the Board of Ordnance as direct descendents of the Privy Wardrobe. One of the early actions of the Board was standardise the means of handling gunpowder in barrels. It was decreed that a standard barrel should contain 100 pounds of powder in a wooden barrel constructed with four copper hoops with ash hoops at each end, the 'chines', and round the centre, the 'bilge' to avoid any possibility of sparks. The bilge hoops also protected the barrels which were regularly inspected and rolled to prevent clumping, (not to avoid separation of the components as commonly stated). It was further ordained that the barrel itself should weigh 12 pounds and thus a full barrel weighs 112 pounds or one hundredweight (cwt). This total weight is convenient for manual handling and storage, particularly below decks in a ship. It has further advantages in that twenty barrels, a last, weighs 2240 pounds which is a statutory ton and contains 2000 pounds of powder, a short ton still used in America. All of which simplified book keeping. Early barrels were made by skilled coopers but in 1866 machine made barrels Mark1 were introduced and by the late 1880s a waterproof inner bag was fitted to the Mark3. Barrels were made of 'Quebec oak', or teak in tropical areas to resist termites. A full barrel was convenient for larger artillery but half and quarter barrels were also authorised for issue. In addition to powder, standard barrels were used for complete musket cartridges and the actual weight could vary slightly as different grain sizes came into service. Seamanship manuals record that empty barrels were broken down and the staves numbered and stored for reuse if necessary. Open barrels of powder pose an obvious hazard in action and a modified barrel was used. The budge barrel, from French bouge, to move, had a leather sleeve fitted to the top which could be closed with a leather thong. The Tower inventories list 'freying barrels' from 1374 onwards. The meaning is unclear. Freying implies breaking down; possibly mixing gunpowder or crushing knollenpulver cakes. Alternatively a shortened form of diffray a portioning out (more usually financial) a precursor of the budge barrel. With the introduction of heavy artillery using large pressed grains barrels were not suitable for prism powder and a series of rectangular boxes were introduced. These were deal with a teak lid and zinc lined sealed with an indiarubber gasket and luted with a mixture of beeswax and tallow. They remained in service until the introduction of bagged charges rendered them obsolete.

Much has been written on where and when gunpowder was first introduced. This paper offers a credi... more Much has been written on where and when gunpowder was first introduced. This paper offers a credible hypothesis to explain why and how the unique mixture may have come about.

Saltpetre is often referred to as the heart or soul of gunpowder and indeed the nitrate ion is th... more Saltpetre is often referred to as the heart or soul of gunpowder and indeed the
nitrate ion is the sole source of the gasses that give gunpowder its explosive
properties. It can be substituted, albeit with varying success, by other
oxidisers but the unique burning properties of gunpowder derive almost
entirely from the ability of charcoal to release those gasses.
Naïve equations for the gunpowder reaction commonly depict charcoal as C,
the chemical element carbon. The errors that this introduces into subsequent
arguments are examined.
The development of the charring process from ‘domestic’ to a well controlled
industrial process is examined with evidence of the early use of ‘cylinder
charcoal’.

Journal of the Ordnance Society Vol 28, 2021

Much has been written about the sources and properties of saltpetre and charcoal but the third co... more Much has been written about the sources and properties of saltpetre and charcoal but the third component of gunpowder, sulphur, has received scant attention. Although the 'modern' spelling of saltpeter and sulfur 1 are becoming more widely used, saltpetre and sulphur are almost universal in contemporary literature. The sulphur spelling is still used by the city of Sulphur, Louisiana, US technical manuals, EU legislation, major producers and many place names. As this paper deals primarily with literature pre-twentyfirst century, the original spelling is used throughout. Although gunpowder can be made without sulphur, it has been considered an essential component from the earliest times. Of the theories propounded for the invention of gunpowder, none address the question of why the three ingredients were present in proportions that could result in a credible explosion. A previous paper 2 has posited the development of gunpowder as an evolutionary process following a logical progression involving no unique inventive step. This, incidentally, explains the difficulty in assigning a specific date to the invention of gunpowder. Briefly, the sequence of development could credibly have been ... Charcoal-A fire weapon (fire pot) Charcoal + Sulphur-A chemical weapon (stink pot) Charcoal + Sulphur + Saltpetre-An enhanced flame weapon (flame thrower) By increasing the saltpetre content as an obvious means of enhancing the flame effect, the explosive properties became evident and were exploited.

Journal of the Ordnance Society vol.27, 2020

Since the seminal works of Needham and Partington, accounts of saltpetre have been dominated by h... more Since the seminal works of Needham and Partington, accounts of saltpetre have been dominated by historical writers with scant attempts to verify the technical details. This paper seeks to follow the progress of saltpetre production from the earliest collection of the natural product to the large scale production demanded by the rapid growth of gunpowder weapons. The basic chemistry of the production and purification process is described and the important and much misunderstood role of lime is explained, Other similar nitrates are briefly described, chiefly to eliminate them as credible substitutes for saltpetre in gunpowder.

Key words: Saltpetre, Nitre, Gunpowder, Medieval Gunpowder Chemistry.

The earliest gunpowder, known as serpentine, is frequently mentioned by authors. It is said to ha... more The earliest gunpowder, known as serpentine, is frequently mentioned by authors. It is said to have easily separated into its constituents in transit, readily absorbing moisture and lacking power. The origin of these assertions is obscure but they are faithfully repeated by each successive generation of author. No original source is cited and it reflects poorly on the scholarship of authors that no attempt has been made to verify these claims. This paper attempts to examine the facts in the light of current knowledge of powder handling technologies and ballistics. Although the energy potential depends only on the ratio of ingredients, the burning characteristics of serpentine powder are radically different from later, corned, powder and the influence of this on gun design is explored.

The earliest type of gunpowder was a simple mixture of saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur, commonly ... more The earliest type of gunpowder was a simple mixture of saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur, commonly referred to as serpentine after the early artillery piece known as a serpent. The name long outlived the gun and it was in common use until about the end of the sixteenth century because the burning chracteristics were found to suite several types of contemporary ordnance. 2 The useage of serpentine has been discussed by several authors and a common point of discussion has been the question of whether the powder was prepared in the dry or wet state. This brief note examines the available evidence. Early texts on the preparation of gunpowder are scarce and are not written in a style that would be expected of a modern production instruction. However there are clues and knowledge of modern chemistry helps to understand the observations of the time. Given the three basic ingredients, the first attempt of a fourteenth century gunner would presumably be to simply mix them in the dry state. However, the components must first be reduced to a fine state to ensure complete mixing. It is abundently clear to anyone who has handled finely ground charcoal 3 that the dust is messy, pervasive and easily dispersed by the slightest draft. The latter point, of course, potentially changes the carefully weighed addition to the mix. Simply stirring the mix is a very inefficient way of obtaining uniformity and it is evident from earliest MS illustrations and instructions that they were ground together in a pestel and mortar, initially by hand and, as production quantities increased, by manual and later horse or water powered stamp mill. It has been shown conclusively that even the earliest saltpetre was sustantially pure potassium nitrate 4. However the saltpetre crystalises from a solution that contains other salts and unless the product is washed thoroughly and/or subjected to repeated recrystalisation, the crystals will be coated with a residue of the mother liquor which contains some of these contaminants. The earliest account of gunpowder production in Western literature is Das Fuerwerkbuche of the late fourteenth century. translated as The Firework Book 5. It contains the following statement 6 '…When you grind the components down to powder in a mortar 7 , they will mix very closely and become a little moist. Do not let this trouble you'…This has been fully discussed in a previous paper, but briefly, any calcium salts are converted to potassium nitrate by the potash always present in charcoal and water of crystallisation is is released causing the mix to become moist 8. The reader is told not be troubled since the final product had to be dried anyway.

Gunpowder is a physical mixture of three components; saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur. As the tech... more Gunpowder is a physical mixture of three components; saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur. As the technology matured the ratio of these became standardised at 75:15:10 with minor variations. Manuscript evidence for early formulations can differ significantly from this and there has been considerable speculation by modern authors about what effect this might have on its performance. This note considers the question from the viewpoint of the basic chemistry involved. The evolution of gunpowder has been considered in previous papers 2. It is well documented in early manuscripts that the critical component, saltpetre, was first obtained from the efflorescence found on stable and cellar walls. This is obviously a limited source of supply and early saltpetre would have been a scarce and expensive material. It is no surprise to find that early formulations contained low amounts which generally increased over the years as supply was increased in line with demand and improvements in ordnance. The evolution in the form of gunpowder from serpentine to corned to grained etc. significantly affect the burn rate 3 but not the basic chemical energy contained in any particular mix and will not be considered here. The reaction occurring when gunpowder burns is frequently depicted as 4 :-10 KNO 3 + 8 C+ 3 S → 2 K 2 CO 3 + 3 K 2 SO 4 + 6 CO 2 + 5 N 2 Approx. 75 : 15 : 10 by weight This is a naïve representation of a highly complex reaction now known to take place in eight to ten distinct steps. Nevertheless it is sufficient to demonstrate the oxygen balance necessary for complete combustion and agrees closely with the " ideal " composition of 75:15:10. Accepting that variations in the type of charcoal etc. have a measurable effect on the ignition and burn rate of a batch of gunpowder, the total potential chemical energy 5 is directly controlled by the amount of oxygen available in the mix i.e. the available saltpetre. Early formulations are recorded as containing significantly less saltpetre but the basic chemistry of the reaction is unchanged.

Abstract: This paper draws a parallel between the archetypal bombard of the fifteenth century and... more Abstract: This paper draws a parallel between the archetypal bombard of the fifteenth century and the ballistic design of the cartridge for the modern 40mm grenade While the design of the former was presumably derived by purely empirical reasoning, more formal ballistic considerations have arrived at a remarkably similar solution to a twentieth century problem.

Saltpetre in medieval gunpowder; Calcium or Potassium Nitrate? Until recently, it has been acc... more Saltpetre in medieval gunpowder; Calcium or Potassium Nitrate?

Until recently, it has been accepted that the formulation of gunpowder has always been based on variable mixtures of charcoal, sulphur and potassium nitrate. This has recently been challenged.

It has been asserted that early gunpowder was based on lime saltpetre that is calcium nitrate. This paper examines that claim.

In 2001 The Arms and Armour Society sponsored a translation of Das Feuerwerkbuch. (FWB) This ma... more In 2001 The Arms and Armour Society sponsored a translation of Das Feuerwerkbuch. (FWB) This manuscript contains the earliest (Western) references to gunpowder. The editorial comment of the translation contained the unsubstantiated assertion that, since certain processes were not specifically mentioned in the text, they were not carried out and that consequently the nitrate of medieval gunpowder was calcium based.
This has been shown to be incorrect but the concept seems to have taken root among some historians unable to understand the clear technical evidence in the manuscript.ii
Although the processes described in the FWB were evidently capable of delivering substantially pure potassium nitrate, there remains a possibility that some calcium (or magnesium) nitrate could remain as a minor impurity sufficient to affect the quality of the gunpowder.
This present paper gives evidence that such contamination was sometimes (but not always) present but was neutralised during the manufacturing process.

The illustrations of the Milemete guns have long been accepted as representing the first type emp... more The illustrations of the Milemete guns have long been accepted as representing the first type employed in Europe.
This paper considers their design in the light of artistic conventions of the day and invites a reappraisal of their accuracy

The two 1326 manuscripts of Walter de Milemete, De Notabilitatibus, Sapientiis, et Prudentiis Re... more The two 1326 manuscripts of Walter de Milemete, De Notabilitatibus, Sapientiis, et Prudentiis Regum and Pseudo Aristototle 'Secretis Secretorum' are well known for containing illustrations of West's earliest gun, although their accuracy has been questioned in an earlier paper. However, nothing has been published on the other ordnance contained in the two manuscripts.

Proc. The Institution of Mechanical Engineers

A report on development of Anti-Aircraft artillery to meet the challenge of higer and faster airc... more A report on development of Anti-Aircraft artillery to meet the challenge of higer and faster aircraft after WW2

Arguably the most important Western source on the early history of gunpowder technology is the la... more Arguably the most important Western source on the early history of gunpowder technology is the late thirteenth century manuscript, Das Fuerwerkbuch. When it was translated into English in 2000, it contained a commentary on the chemistry of many of the formulations given. These were largely dismissed as useless alchemical nonsense which could not work. Although some mysteries remain, much of the formulation can be understood either as contemporary 'best practice' or by comparison with modern pyrotechnic and explosive knowledge.
This paper re-examines the underlying chemistry and demonstrates some surprising innovations anticipating much later claims.

Note
An extended and peer reviewed copy of this paper was published in ICON Vol 21, 2015
available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/24721698?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

During the American Civil War both sides experienced shortages of saltpetre, vital for the produc... more During the American Civil War both sides experienced shortages of saltpetre, vital for the production of gunpowder.
In 1863 an appeal was made in the local press for help

An MSc dissertation. Cyanide is a commonly used chemical in Metal Finishing industries. The conti... more An MSc dissertation. Cyanide is a commonly used chemical in Metal Finishing industries. The continuous drive to replace chemicals with ostensibly less toxic alternatives can lead to substitution of less well characterised chemicals with potentially greater risks. Cyanide is a simple chemical, well understood, of low persistence in the environment and easily treated in industrial effluents. Public fear of cyanide is often ill founded.

In the early days of WW2 there were insufficient anti-aircraft guns to counter the bomber threat ... more In the early days of WW2 there were insufficient anti-aircraft guns to counter the bomber threat to Britain. Rockets offered a cheap and plentiful answer but were woefully inaccurate. This article records an ingenious attempt to offer an effective detonation with a near miss.

Talks by Geoff Smith

As a source of energy, gunpowder was an obvious early candidate to fuel a prime mover. Most comme... more As a source of energy, gunpowder was an obvious early candidate to fuel a prime mover. Most commentators report that Huygens proposed, but did not build, an engine and that such a scheme would be intrinsically impractical. Huygens' engine did precisely what it was intended to do. This presentation reviews about twenty proposed inventors ranging from the successful through the hopeful to the charlatan. As a fuel, gunpowder has both advantages and limitations that are explored.
With the development of the liquid/gas powered internal combustion engine the attraction of gunpowder as a fuel was superseded but still finds use as a starter cartridge for large engines and other single use devices.

Gunpowder, a mixture of three simple components, had an enormous influence on the development of ... more Gunpowder, a mixture of three simple components, had an enormous influence on the development of the post classical world. It is now generally accepted that it originated in the east but how it came about has long been a subject of speculation.
Given that only a limited range of proportions result in a noteworthy reaction, and that the major component was both rare and expensive, why did they come together? Classical images of monks blowing up their mortars do not stand critical examination. This presentation offers a credible route whereby the mix could have evolved.
How gunpowder ignites at a temperature well below the melting point of any of its constituents is another question to be explored.
The development of gunpowder technology is traced from sourcing the ingredients and the earliest crude mixture to the fully developed industry of the nineteenth century still in use today.
The talk concludes with an overview of some of the less well known – and perhaps surprising - uses of gunpowder throughout history.

Ordnance Society Newsletter, 2023

The earliest reference to storage and transport of gunpowder comes from the Tower Inventories whi... more The earliest reference to storage and transport of gunpowder comes from the Tower Inventories which speaks of white leather bags. Not a bad choice of materiel being moderately both fire and water resistant. However as domestic production of gunpowder in England became established it was placed under royal control, specifically the Board of Ordnance as direct descendents of the Privy Wardrobe. One of the early actions of the Board was standardise the means of handling gunpowder in barrels. It was decreed that a standard barrel should contain 100 pounds of powder in a wooden barrel constructed with four copper hoops with ash hoops at each end, the 'chines', and round the centre, the 'bilge' to avoid any possibility of sparks. The bilge hoops also protected the barrels which were regularly inspected and rolled to prevent clumping, (not to avoid separation of the components as commonly stated). It was further ordained that the barrel itself should weigh 12 pounds and thus a full barrel weighs 112 pounds or one hundredweight (cwt). This total weight is convenient for manual handling and storage, particularly below decks in a ship. It has further advantages in that twenty barrels, a last, weighs 2240 pounds which is a statutory ton and contains 2000 pounds of powder, a short ton still used in America. All of which simplified book keeping. Early barrels were made by skilled coopers but in 1866 machine made barrels Mark1 were introduced and by the late 1880s a waterproof inner bag was fitted to the Mark3. Barrels were made of 'Quebec oak', or teak in tropical areas to resist termites. A full barrel was convenient for larger artillery but half and quarter barrels were also authorised for issue. In addition to powder, standard barrels were used for complete musket cartridges and the actual weight could vary slightly as different grain sizes came into service. Seamanship manuals record that empty barrels were broken down and the staves numbered and stored for reuse if necessary. Open barrels of powder pose an obvious hazard in action and a modified barrel was used. The budge barrel, from French bouge, to move, had a leather sleeve fitted to the top which could be closed with a leather thong. The Tower inventories list 'freying barrels' from 1374 onwards. The meaning is unclear. Freying implies breaking down; possibly mixing gunpowder or crushing knollenpulver cakes. Alternatively a shortened form of diffray a portioning out (more usually financial) a precursor of the budge barrel. With the introduction of heavy artillery using large pressed grains barrels were not suitable for prism powder and a series of rectangular boxes were introduced. These were deal with a teak lid and zinc lined sealed with an indiarubber gasket and luted with a mixture of beeswax and tallow. They remained in service until the introduction of bagged charges rendered them obsolete.

Much has been written on where and when gunpowder was first introduced. This paper offers a credi... more Much has been written on where and when gunpowder was first introduced. This paper offers a credible hypothesis to explain why and how the unique mixture may have come about.

Saltpetre is often referred to as the heart or soul of gunpowder and indeed the nitrate ion is th... more Saltpetre is often referred to as the heart or soul of gunpowder and indeed the
nitrate ion is the sole source of the gasses that give gunpowder its explosive
properties. It can be substituted, albeit with varying success, by other
oxidisers but the unique burning properties of gunpowder derive almost
entirely from the ability of charcoal to release those gasses.
Naïve equations for the gunpowder reaction commonly depict charcoal as C,
the chemical element carbon. The errors that this introduces into subsequent
arguments are examined.
The development of the charring process from ‘domestic’ to a well controlled
industrial process is examined with evidence of the early use of ‘cylinder
charcoal’.

Journal of the Ordnance Society Vol 28, 2021

Much has been written about the sources and properties of saltpetre and charcoal but the third co... more Much has been written about the sources and properties of saltpetre and charcoal but the third component of gunpowder, sulphur, has received scant attention. Although the 'modern' spelling of saltpeter and sulfur 1 are becoming more widely used, saltpetre and sulphur are almost universal in contemporary literature. The sulphur spelling is still used by the city of Sulphur, Louisiana, US technical manuals, EU legislation, major producers and many place names. As this paper deals primarily with literature pre-twentyfirst century, the original spelling is used throughout. Although gunpowder can be made without sulphur, it has been considered an essential component from the earliest times. Of the theories propounded for the invention of gunpowder, none address the question of why the three ingredients were present in proportions that could result in a credible explosion. A previous paper 2 has posited the development of gunpowder as an evolutionary process following a logical progression involving no unique inventive step. This, incidentally, explains the difficulty in assigning a specific date to the invention of gunpowder. Briefly, the sequence of development could credibly have been ... Charcoal-A fire weapon (fire pot) Charcoal + Sulphur-A chemical weapon (stink pot) Charcoal + Sulphur + Saltpetre-An enhanced flame weapon (flame thrower) By increasing the saltpetre content as an obvious means of enhancing the flame effect, the explosive properties became evident and were exploited.

Journal of the Ordnance Society vol.27, 2020

Since the seminal works of Needham and Partington, accounts of saltpetre have been dominated by h... more Since the seminal works of Needham and Partington, accounts of saltpetre have been dominated by historical writers with scant attempts to verify the technical details. This paper seeks to follow the progress of saltpetre production from the earliest collection of the natural product to the large scale production demanded by the rapid growth of gunpowder weapons. The basic chemistry of the production and purification process is described and the important and much misunderstood role of lime is explained, Other similar nitrates are briefly described, chiefly to eliminate them as credible substitutes for saltpetre in gunpowder.

Key words: Saltpetre, Nitre, Gunpowder, Medieval Gunpowder Chemistry.

The earliest gunpowder, known as serpentine, is frequently mentioned by authors. It is said to ha... more The earliest gunpowder, known as serpentine, is frequently mentioned by authors. It is said to have easily separated into its constituents in transit, readily absorbing moisture and lacking power. The origin of these assertions is obscure but they are faithfully repeated by each successive generation of author. No original source is cited and it reflects poorly on the scholarship of authors that no attempt has been made to verify these claims. This paper attempts to examine the facts in the light of current knowledge of powder handling technologies and ballistics. Although the energy potential depends only on the ratio of ingredients, the burning characteristics of serpentine powder are radically different from later, corned, powder and the influence of this on gun design is explored.

The earliest type of gunpowder was a simple mixture of saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur, commonly ... more The earliest type of gunpowder was a simple mixture of saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur, commonly referred to as serpentine after the early artillery piece known as a serpent. The name long outlived the gun and it was in common use until about the end of the sixteenth century because the burning chracteristics were found to suite several types of contemporary ordnance. 2 The useage of serpentine has been discussed by several authors and a common point of discussion has been the question of whether the powder was prepared in the dry or wet state. This brief note examines the available evidence. Early texts on the preparation of gunpowder are scarce and are not written in a style that would be expected of a modern production instruction. However there are clues and knowledge of modern chemistry helps to understand the observations of the time. Given the three basic ingredients, the first attempt of a fourteenth century gunner would presumably be to simply mix them in the dry state. However, the components must first be reduced to a fine state to ensure complete mixing. It is abundently clear to anyone who has handled finely ground charcoal 3 that the dust is messy, pervasive and easily dispersed by the slightest draft. The latter point, of course, potentially changes the carefully weighed addition to the mix. Simply stirring the mix is a very inefficient way of obtaining uniformity and it is evident from earliest MS illustrations and instructions that they were ground together in a pestel and mortar, initially by hand and, as production quantities increased, by manual and later horse or water powered stamp mill. It has been shown conclusively that even the earliest saltpetre was sustantially pure potassium nitrate 4. However the saltpetre crystalises from a solution that contains other salts and unless the product is washed thoroughly and/or subjected to repeated recrystalisation, the crystals will be coated with a residue of the mother liquor which contains some of these contaminants. The earliest account of gunpowder production in Western literature is Das Fuerwerkbuche of the late fourteenth century. translated as The Firework Book 5. It contains the following statement 6 '…When you grind the components down to powder in a mortar 7 , they will mix very closely and become a little moist. Do not let this trouble you'…This has been fully discussed in a previous paper, but briefly, any calcium salts are converted to potassium nitrate by the potash always present in charcoal and water of crystallisation is is released causing the mix to become moist 8. The reader is told not be troubled since the final product had to be dried anyway.

Gunpowder is a physical mixture of three components; saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur. As the tech... more Gunpowder is a physical mixture of three components; saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur. As the technology matured the ratio of these became standardised at 75:15:10 with minor variations. Manuscript evidence for early formulations can differ significantly from this and there has been considerable speculation by modern authors about what effect this might have on its performance. This note considers the question from the viewpoint of the basic chemistry involved. The evolution of gunpowder has been considered in previous papers 2. It is well documented in early manuscripts that the critical component, saltpetre, was first obtained from the efflorescence found on stable and cellar walls. This is obviously a limited source of supply and early saltpetre would have been a scarce and expensive material. It is no surprise to find that early formulations contained low amounts which generally increased over the years as supply was increased in line with demand and improvements in ordnance. The evolution in the form of gunpowder from serpentine to corned to grained etc. significantly affect the burn rate 3 but not the basic chemical energy contained in any particular mix and will not be considered here. The reaction occurring when gunpowder burns is frequently depicted as 4 :-10 KNO 3 + 8 C+ 3 S → 2 K 2 CO 3 + 3 K 2 SO 4 + 6 CO 2 + 5 N 2 Approx. 75 : 15 : 10 by weight This is a naïve representation of a highly complex reaction now known to take place in eight to ten distinct steps. Nevertheless it is sufficient to demonstrate the oxygen balance necessary for complete combustion and agrees closely with the " ideal " composition of 75:15:10. Accepting that variations in the type of charcoal etc. have a measurable effect on the ignition and burn rate of a batch of gunpowder, the total potential chemical energy 5 is directly controlled by the amount of oxygen available in the mix i.e. the available saltpetre. Early formulations are recorded as containing significantly less saltpetre but the basic chemistry of the reaction is unchanged.

Abstract: This paper draws a parallel between the archetypal bombard of the fifteenth century and... more Abstract: This paper draws a parallel between the archetypal bombard of the fifteenth century and the ballistic design of the cartridge for the modern 40mm grenade While the design of the former was presumably derived by purely empirical reasoning, more formal ballistic considerations have arrived at a remarkably similar solution to a twentieth century problem.

Saltpetre in medieval gunpowder; Calcium or Potassium Nitrate? Until recently, it has been acc... more Saltpetre in medieval gunpowder; Calcium or Potassium Nitrate?

Until recently, it has been accepted that the formulation of gunpowder has always been based on variable mixtures of charcoal, sulphur and potassium nitrate. This has recently been challenged.

It has been asserted that early gunpowder was based on lime saltpetre that is calcium nitrate. This paper examines that claim.

In 2001 The Arms and Armour Society sponsored a translation of Das Feuerwerkbuch. (FWB) This ma... more In 2001 The Arms and Armour Society sponsored a translation of Das Feuerwerkbuch. (FWB) This manuscript contains the earliest (Western) references to gunpowder. The editorial comment of the translation contained the unsubstantiated assertion that, since certain processes were not specifically mentioned in the text, they were not carried out and that consequently the nitrate of medieval gunpowder was calcium based.
This has been shown to be incorrect but the concept seems to have taken root among some historians unable to understand the clear technical evidence in the manuscript.ii
Although the processes described in the FWB were evidently capable of delivering substantially pure potassium nitrate, there remains a possibility that some calcium (or magnesium) nitrate could remain as a minor impurity sufficient to affect the quality of the gunpowder.
This present paper gives evidence that such contamination was sometimes (but not always) present but was neutralised during the manufacturing process.

The illustrations of the Milemete guns have long been accepted as representing the first type emp... more The illustrations of the Milemete guns have long been accepted as representing the first type employed in Europe.
This paper considers their design in the light of artistic conventions of the day and invites a reappraisal of their accuracy

The two 1326 manuscripts of Walter de Milemete, De Notabilitatibus, Sapientiis, et Prudentiis Re... more The two 1326 manuscripts of Walter de Milemete, De Notabilitatibus, Sapientiis, et Prudentiis Regum and Pseudo Aristototle 'Secretis Secretorum' are well known for containing illustrations of West's earliest gun, although their accuracy has been questioned in an earlier paper. However, nothing has been published on the other ordnance contained in the two manuscripts.

Proc. The Institution of Mechanical Engineers

A report on development of Anti-Aircraft artillery to meet the challenge of higer and faster airc... more A report on development of Anti-Aircraft artillery to meet the challenge of higer and faster aircraft after WW2

Arguably the most important Western source on the early history of gunpowder technology is the la... more Arguably the most important Western source on the early history of gunpowder technology is the late thirteenth century manuscript, Das Fuerwerkbuch. When it was translated into English in 2000, it contained a commentary on the chemistry of many of the formulations given. These were largely dismissed as useless alchemical nonsense which could not work. Although some mysteries remain, much of the formulation can be understood either as contemporary 'best practice' or by comparison with modern pyrotechnic and explosive knowledge.
This paper re-examines the underlying chemistry and demonstrates some surprising innovations anticipating much later claims.

Note
An extended and peer reviewed copy of this paper was published in ICON Vol 21, 2015
available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/24721698?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

During the American Civil War both sides experienced shortages of saltpetre, vital for the produc... more During the American Civil War both sides experienced shortages of saltpetre, vital for the production of gunpowder.
In 1863 an appeal was made in the local press for help

An MSc dissertation. Cyanide is a commonly used chemical in Metal Finishing industries. The conti... more An MSc dissertation. Cyanide is a commonly used chemical in Metal Finishing industries. The continuous drive to replace chemicals with ostensibly less toxic alternatives can lead to substitution of less well characterised chemicals with potentially greater risks. Cyanide is a simple chemical, well understood, of low persistence in the environment and easily treated in industrial effluents. Public fear of cyanide is often ill founded.

In the early days of WW2 there were insufficient anti-aircraft guns to counter the bomber threat ... more In the early days of WW2 there were insufficient anti-aircraft guns to counter the bomber threat to Britain. Rockets offered a cheap and plentiful answer but were woefully inaccurate. This article records an ingenious attempt to offer an effective detonation with a near miss.

As a source of energy, gunpowder was an obvious early candidate to fuel a prime mover. Most comme... more As a source of energy, gunpowder was an obvious early candidate to fuel a prime mover. Most commentators report that Huygens proposed, but did not build, an engine and that such a scheme would be intrinsically impractical. Huygens' engine did precisely what it was intended to do. This presentation reviews about twenty proposed inventors ranging from the successful through the hopeful to the charlatan. As a fuel, gunpowder has both advantages and limitations that are explored.
With the development of the liquid/gas powered internal combustion engine the attraction of gunpowder as a fuel was superseded but still finds use as a starter cartridge for large engines and other single use devices.

Gunpowder, a mixture of three simple components, had an enormous influence on the development of ... more Gunpowder, a mixture of three simple components, had an enormous influence on the development of the post classical world. It is now generally accepted that it originated in the east but how it came about has long been a subject of speculation.
Given that only a limited range of proportions result in a noteworthy reaction, and that the major component was both rare and expensive, why did they come together? Classical images of monks blowing up their mortars do not stand critical examination. This presentation offers a credible route whereby the mix could have evolved.
How gunpowder ignites at a temperature well below the melting point of any of its constituents is another question to be explored.
The development of gunpowder technology is traced from sourcing the ingredients and the earliest crude mixture to the fully developed industry of the nineteenth century still in use today.
The talk concludes with an overview of some of the less well known – and perhaps surprising - uses of gunpowder throughout history.

An Ordnance Society conference presenting the latest finds, research and conservation of ordnance... more An Ordnance Society conference presenting the latest finds, research and conservation of ordnance recovered from marine sites

The papers presented at this conference are now published in the Journal of the Ordnance Society https://ordnancesociety.org.uk/about-us/

Notice and call for papers for of ORDCON 2017 annual conference for users and students of gunpowd... more Notice and call for papers for of ORDCON 2017 annual conference for users and students of gunpowder