Nicholas Blackwell | Indiana University (original) (raw)

Papers by Nicholas Blackwell

American Journal of Archaeology 127.2, 167-187, 2023

The Ta tablets are a series of Linear B documents from the Palace of Nestor at Pylos that invento... more The Ta tablets are a series of Linear B documents from the Palace of Nestor at Pylos that inventory vessels, fire implements, slaughtering paraphernalia, and furniture. This article argues that all the equipment documented on the Ta tablets pertains to a single large-scale ritual cattle sacrifice and was not equipment for the banquet that would have followed the sacrifice. The argument is rooted in a reanalysis of the tables listed on the Ta tablets that concludes that they were used for the slaughter and butchery of sacrificial cattle. Discussion proceeds from there to the sacrificial ritual use of the other items listed on the Ta tablets. Finally, speculative conclusions are drawn about the political ceremony that employed these objects and a possible smaller event taking place within the larger ceremony. This study draws on a wide range of sources, including other materials found in the same archival room, relevant iconography, archaeological comparanda, experimental archaeology, and a study of comparative butchery techniques.

Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici. Nuova Serie 7, 21-37, 2021

The Linear B word unit pa-sa-ro is a confounding hapax that appears as the first word on tablet T... more The Linear B word unit pa-sa-ro is a confounding hapax that appears as the first word on tablet Ta 716 from the Palace of Nestor at Pylos. We argue that the Linear B term is related to ψαλόν in later Greek. The use of ψαλόν in the historical era suggests an open, U-shaped item – akin to a headstall or cavesson – for controlling an animal’s head, typically a horse. The pair of pa-sa-ro on Pylos Ta 716 are ritual instruments necessary for leading and controlling sacrificial victims (the identity of which is not recorded) to slaughter. The pa-sa-ro are listed first followed by pairs of two other ceremonial implements, wa-o ‘hammer axes’ and qi-si-pe-e ‘sacrificial’ knives. Palaima and Blackwell (2020) translate pa-sa-ro as a “bridle device.” Here, we increase our understanding by probing the precise form of the Mycenaean object through an unexpected source: fourteenth-century BCE iconography from Crete. An overlooked feature on the well-known bull sacrifice painting on the Agia Triada sarcophagus can plausibly be interpreted as an image of a pa-sa-ro. This identification also signals the type of animal likely intended for slaughter at Pylos using the equipment recorded on Ta 716. It adds another temporal marker to the sequence of ritual actions that led to the moment of sacrificial slaughter on the Agia Triada sarcophagus.

Hesperia (90.2), 191-231, 2021

This article considers formal diplomatic relations between the Mycenaeans and Hittites through an... more This article considers formal diplomatic relations between the Mycenaeans and Hittites through analysis of the Hittite Tawagalawa Letter. Consensus attributes that tablet's authorship to Ḫattušili III (ca. 1267–1237 B.C.), who complained to the king of Ahhiyawa about a Hittite renegade named Piyamaradu. The historical context of Ḫattušili's foreign policy, particularly his Treaty of Kadesh with the Egyptian pharaoh Rameses II, supports a revised understanding of his correspondence with Ahhiyawa. The Tawagalawa Letter alludes to an existing nonaggression pact between Hatti and Ahhiyawa modeled after the well-known Hittite-Egyptian contract. This new idea reconciles the discrepancy between a unified Ahhiyawa and a politically fragmented Mycenaean world. Such diplomacy can also account for technological similarities that exist between Mycenae and Hattuša.

in ASHLAR: Exploring the Materiality of Cut-Stone Masonry in the Eastern Mediterranean Bronze Age (Aegis 17), edited by M. Devolder and I. Kreimerman, 215-240. Louvain-la-Neuve: Presses universitaires de Louvain , 2020

In A Companion to the Archaeology of Early Greece and the Mediterranean. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World, edited by I.S. Lemos and A. Kotsonas, 523-537 (Hoboken, NJ), 2020

Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici. Nuova Serie 6, 67-95, 2020

Pylos tablet Ta 716 is crucial for our reconstructing and understanding whatever ceremonial or ri... more Pylos tablet Ta 716 is crucial for our reconstructing and understanding whatever ceremonial or ritual activities called into being the inventory of (1) fire-management instruments; (2) cooking, serving and consuming vessels; and (3) luxurious tables, chairs and stools that are recorded, in that order, in retrievable detail on the other twelve Ta series tablets (Palaima 2000; Tsagrakis 2012, 323; Varias 2016, 551-558). In their recent hypothetical reconstruction of ceremonies in the Palace of Nestor at Pylos, Farmer and Lane (SMEA NS 2, 2016, 41-79) do not take into account the full range of evidence needed to interpret the items on Ta 716 and they misrepresent or overlook the work of specialist scholars who contribute to a sound understanding of Ta 716 through the study of etymology, lexicography, iconography, Linear B texts, Mycenaean ideograms (signs for objects) and archaeological artifacts.

We here provide an accurate close reading of the full text of Ta 716 that is based on decades of work by other scholars. We identify and explain all three pairs of items on Ta 716 differently than Farmer and Lane (2016, 53) do, and we discuss Ta 716 as a historical document. The items inventoried on Ta 716 must be interpreted in relationship to one another. Farmer and Lane propose that the objects on Ta 716 are: (a) chains around-the-throne or between-the-thrones; (b) “patently” a pair of double axes, “the ubiquitous Minoan religious symbol”; (c) “two (short) swords”.

We argue from the unique lexical entries for these paired items, from the likewise unique iconography of the two associated ideograms, from the particular order of items in the text, from material correlates in the archaeological record, from ritual imagery on vases, and from comparative ritual practices that tablet Ta 716 records six items in all: (a) one pair of ritual bridles (perhaps bits, metal-reinforced nose bands or cavessons), specified as ‘with gold wrapping or plating’ ‘on this side and that’ and perhaps overlaid on toggles or cheek pieces, used to control sacrificial animals; (b) one pair of hammer axes or stunning axes used in the act of ritual slaying; (c) one pair of sacrificial knives. This is not a case of picking which of two equally plausible lines of argument best suits our particular views of the Mycenaean past. We do have such a nearly unsolvable case of picking and choosing when it comes to the interpretation of the verb te-ke meaning either ‘appointed’ or ‘buried’ in the key introductory explanatory phrase of the heading line (Ta 711.1) for the entire Ta series of tablets (see our Conclusion). However, Ta 716 is more straightforward. Taken together, our arguments call into question the reliability of the unusual ceremonial activities that Farmer and Lane (2016) propose.

American Journal of Archaeology, 122.4, 509-539, 2018

This paper considers the Mycenaean metallurgical industry at the end of the Bronze Age through an... more This paper considers the Mycenaean metallurgical industry at the end of the Bronze Age through analysis of metal hoards and the tools found within them. An overview of second-millennium hoards from Crete and the Greek mainland is presented to contextualize the various objects from these assemblages. Patterns of implement inclusion reveal a repeated tool grouping in seven Mycenaean hoards, most associated with elite contexts. These Mycenaean caches, incorporating a range of complete and broken items, are traditionally considered recyclable scrap, but they need not be random accumulations. The repetitive tool grouping suggests a structural principle in hoard formations, perhaps dictated by the state. The Mycenaean assemblages from the late 13th or early 12th century B.C.E. highlighted here may represent either palatial stock within a citadel or an archaeological remnant of a metal ta-ra-si-ja allotment given to a smith. The identification of several hoards as metal disbursements from a palace complements the picture of Pylian administration of metal, attested only by the ta-ra-si-ja arrangements outlined in the Jn and Ja Linear B tablets.

Antiquity 92:361, 217-232, 2018

The development of an advanced stone-working technology in the Aegean Bronze Age is suggested by ... more The development of an advanced stone-working technology in the Aegean Bronze Age is suggested by the putative Mycenaean pendulum saw. This device seems to have been used to cut through hard sedimentary rock at a number of sites on the Greek mainland and, according to some scholars, also in central Anatolia. As no pendulum saws are preserved in the archaeological record, understanding the machine relies on preserved tool marks and experimental research. This paper presents the results of stone-cutting experiments conducted with a modern reconstruction of a pendulum saw. The research investigates blade shape, size, design and the mechanics of the device, while questioning the accuracy of earlier reconstructions.

American Journal of Archaeology 118.3, 451-488, Jul 2014

This article considers the stoneworking techniques and implements that were employed in the produ... more This article considers the stoneworking techniques and implements that were employed in the production of the Lion Gate relief at Mycenae, as deduced from tool marks preserved on the sculpture. Examination of these traces has revealed previously undetected details while highlighting the indispensable roles of tubular drills and saws—especially a large pendulum saw and a smaller convex blade—in the manufacturing process. A new illustration of the relief depicts the location of all discernible tool marks and other minute features, most of which are hidden to the on-ground viewer. The analytical conclusions from this investigation substantially advance our understanding of the monument’s construction. The date of the relief and sequence of its production, as well as unexpected evidence for repair during the Bronze Age, are now clear. Moreover, evaluation of the extant tool marks suggests that the relief’s composition should be reconstructed as heraldic lions turning their now-missing heads backward. Finally, this article argues that specific stonecutting methods evident on the relief have strong parallels in central Anatolia, so the prospect of Hittite and Mycenaean interaction, particularly on a technological level, is appraised.

Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 23.2, 143-167, Dec 2010

The Royal Necropolis and the Cellarka cemetery at Iron Age Salamis (Cyprus) have notable funerary... more The Royal Necropolis and the Cellarka cemetery at Iron Age Salamis (Cyprus) have notable funerary shifts that likely reflect changes in socio-political organization. Construction of the Royal Tombs eventually ceased in favor of grave reuse, roughly when initial elite Cellarka burials appeared in emulation of the Royal Necropolis. This study modifies Rupp’s (1988) argument that the Royal Tombs represent aggrandizing individuals who legitimized a monarchical government through funerary display. Instead, it is argued that the Salaminian burials show transformations in social stability indicative of power being renegotiated among competing regions. Not only were social statuses at stake but also inter regional social, political and economic relations, especially as they are concerned with territorial boundaries and mercantile privileges. A Salaminian strategy for island supremacy over the other early city-kingdoms, particularly Kition, emphasized international relations through display of foreign items and through legitimizing claims of association with Bronze Age Enkomi. The development of the elaborate mortuary displays at Salamis, subsequent restrictions in funerary behavior and even perhaps the often-claimed parallels to Homer are all part of this process of multi-regional competition.

This paper reassess the evidence for the relationships between Italy/Europe and Mycenaean Kos, ba... more This paper reassess the evidence for the relationships between Italy/Europe and Mycenaean Kos, based on metal and amber finds. The evidence demonstrates that Kos played a prominent role in forming contacts between the Dodecanese and Italy/Europe in the Mycenaean period. During the centuries from LBA IIIA1 to LH IIIC Middle, Kos received the largest amount of Italian/European type objects in the Dodecanese, followed by Rhodes. The greater circulation of Italian/European type objects on Kos from late LH IIIB may correspond to piracy, a phenomenon that likely increased during the troubled last decades of the 13th century BC with the collapse of the Mycenaean palaces. Indeed, contextual and material evidence from Miletus and Kos indicates that raiding activities may have occurred at this time in the southeast Aegean-southwest coastal Anatolian region. The data also imply a potential link with the so-called Sea Peoples, although the exact nature in the Aegean of this coalition of tribes, as described by Egyptian sources, remains uncertain. The leading role of Kos in forming contacts between the Dodecanese and Italy/Europe at the end of the 13th century BC reflects the political prominence of Kos over Rhodes in the southeast Aegean during LH IIIB. Once Kos established these Italian/European relationships, the pattern simply continued unchanged into the 12th century BC.

(with J.A. Johnson) In Crossroads and Boundaries: The Archaeology of the Past and Present in the Malloura Valley, Cyprus. Edited by M. K. Toumazou, P. N. Kardulias, and D. B. Counts. Boston, MA: American Schools of Oriental Research monograph series, 291-302. , 2011

This study considers the distribution and consumption trends of metal tools from the second mille... more This study considers the distribution and consumption trends of metal tools from the second millennium BC over a wide geographical area including Crete, the Greek mainland, the Greek islands, Cyprus, Anatolia, and Syria-Palestine. An exhaustive database of 5300+ tools was compiled from these regions and time frame. While copper and copper-alloy implements are attested in the third millennium and earlier, the significant advancement of the metallurgical industry in the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean is directly associated with the quantity and diversification of metal tools during the Middle and Late Bronze Age. The progression of craft industries is also related to the development and production of specific and sometimes specialized tool forms.

Book Reviews by Nicholas Blackwell

Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2023.01.42, 2023

Labouring with large stones: a study into the investment and impact of construction projects on M... more Labouring with large stones: a study into the investment and impact of construction projects on Mycenaean communities in Late Bronze Age Greece-Bryn Mawr Classical Review

Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2018.03.14, 2018

This publication investigates the movement of prehistoric peoples and technologies across the Med... more This publication investigates the movement of prehistoric peoples and technologies across the Mediterranean through analyses of various craft industries. The product of a 2010 workshop held at the British School at Athens' Fitch Laboratory for science-based archaeology, the edited volume is the first in a new monograph series-British School at Athens Studies in Greek Antiquity-published by Cambridge University Press. The book relies on case studies supported by Knappett and Kiriatzi's introductory theoretical discussion of the movement of humans, materials, and knowledge with emphasis on the mobility of technologies. The Mediterranean's unparalleled potential for connectivity, highlighted by both Broodbank and Kristiansen, offers further background in the assessment of prehistoric movement. The book's primary goal is the investigation of technological mobility, or how technological knowledge was acquired, transferred, and replicated in different areas. The papers demonstrate that the precise combination of people, materials, knowledge, and methods/techniques that moved varies on a case-bycase basis. Technological choices not only indicate particular methodologies but also may signify shared knowledge amongst communities of practice. The volume's discussions, seen through science-based archaeology and technology, are richer and more detailed than traditional studies of connectivity that rely primarily on artifact distributions and trade networks.

Journal of Near Eastern Studies 74 (1), 162-165, Apr 2015

American Journal of Archaeology (118.2) Online Book Reviews, Apr 2014

American Journal of Archaeology (116.4) Online Book Reviews, Oct 2012

Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2009.02.18, 2009

Word count: 3288 words [Authors and titles are listed at the end of the review.]