Dariusz Jemielniak | Kozminski University (original) (raw)

Papers by Dariusz Jemielniak

Nature Communications Earth & Environment, 2025

Global environmental change has been a topic of discussion in the media for many decades, and soc... more Global environmental change has been a topic of discussion in the media for many decades, and social perception of media terminology has been a topic of research interest. However, a systematic review of large-scale online discussions and the terminology used has not been undertaken. Here, we analyze 16 years of Reddit discussions, encompassing 11.5 billion posts, to examine how language surrounding climate change has evolved over time from 2005 to 2021. We applied sentiment analysis, polarity, subjectivity, and readability metrics to discussions of “global warming” and “climate change”. We found that the use of “climate change” surpassed “global warming” in 2013, with “climate change” associated with more negative sentiment and higher subjectivity. Additionally, we observed a decline in the proportion of climate-related discussions over time despite the increasing total number of posts. These findings suggest that public engagement with climate topics on Reddit is waning, and the choice of terminology significantly influences the tone and complexity of the discourse. Our results have important implications for how climate issues are communicated and perceived by the public.

Journal of Computational Social Science, 2025

In today’s interconnected world, online social networks play a pivotal role in facilitating globa... more In today’s interconnected world, online social networks play a pivotal role in facilitating global communication. These platforms often host discussions on contentious topics such as climate change, vaccines, and war, leading to the formation of two distinct groups: deniers and believers. Understanding the characteristics of these groups is crucial for predicting information flow and managing the diffusion of information. Moreover, such understanding can enhance machine learning algorithms designed to automatically detect these groups, thereby contributing to the development of strategies to curb the spread of disinformation, including fake news and rumors. In this study, we employ social network analysis measures to extract the characteristics of these groups, conducting experiments on three large-scale datasets of over 22 million tweets. Our fndings indicate that, based on network science measures, the denier (anti) group exhibits greater coherence than the believer (pro) group.

IEEE Access, 2024

Echo chambers, a recent phenomenon in the realm of social networks, have garnered significant att... more Echo chambers, a recent phenomenon in the realm of social networks, have garnered significant attention from researchers due to their profound implications. Their role in propagating information, reinforcing beliefs and opinions, and potentially fostering inequality within networks and societies underscores the critical need for comprehensive understanding. Despite the lack of a clear definition, existing research has primarily concentrated on five aspects of echo chambers: their attributes, underlying mechanisms, modeling, detection, and mitigation strategies. The main objectives of this systematic review are to identify terminology, examine the effects of echo chambers, analyze approaches to echo chamber mechanisms, assess modeling and detection techniques, and evaluate metrics used to specify echo chambers in online social networks. By doing so, this article aims to illuminate the strengths and weaknesses of current approaches. To conduct this study, a systematic review was conducted of studies published from 2013 to October 2022, peer-reviewed in five prestigious publishers, including ACM Digital Library, IEEE Xplore, Science Direct, Springer, and Nature. The methodology of this systematic review was guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement. Ultimately, 28 studies were selected for the final review. The findings of this study highlight several main limitations. Firstly, there is a lack of an accurate definition for echo chambers. Secondly, there is a lack of a solid approach to address the components of echo chambers. Thirdly, there is a controversial issue regarding the effect of echo chambers. Lastly, the measures used mostly did not adequately specify echo chambers.

IEEE Access, 2024

Sentiment analysis has become a focal point of interdisciplinary research, prompting the use of d... more Sentiment analysis has become a focal point of interdisciplinary research, prompting the use of diverse methodologies and the continual emergence of programming language packages. Notably, Python and R have introduced comprehensive packages in this realm. In this study, we analyze established packages in these languages, focusing on accuracy while also considering time complexity. Across experiments conducted on seven distinct datasets, a crucial revelation surfaces: the accuracy of these packages significantly varies depending on the dataset used. Among these, the ‘sentimentr’ package consistently performs well across diverse datasets. Generally, Python libraries showcase superior processing speed. However, it’s essential to note that while these packages adeptly classify sentences as positive or negative, capturing sentiment intensity proves challenging. Our findings highlight a prevalent trend of overfitting, where these packages excel on familiar datasets but struggle when faced with unfamiliar ones.

Scientific Reports, 2024

The Normalized Mutual Information (NMI) metric is widely utilized in the evaluation of clustering... more The Normalized Mutual Information (NMI) metric is widely utilized in the evaluation of clustering and community detection algorithms. This study explores the performance of NMI, specifically examining its performance in relation to the quantity of communities, and uncovers a significant drawback associated with the metric’s behavior as the number of communities increases. Our findings reveal a pronounced bias in the NMI as the number of communities escalates. While previous studies have noted this biased behavior, they have not provided a formal proof and have not addressed the causation of this problem, leaving a gap in the existing literature. In this study, we fill this gap by employing a mathematical approach to formally demonstrate why NMI exhibits biased behavior, thereby establishing its unsuitability as a metric for evaluating clustering and community detection algorithms. Crucially, our study exposes the vulnerability of entropy-based metrics that employ logarithmic functions to similar bias.

Discover Sustainability, 2024

The objective of the study was to examine a vast dataset of over 11 million English-language twee... more The objective of the study was to examine a vast dataset of over 11 million English-language tweets concerning climate change gathered over an eleven-year period. The overarching aim was to illuminate the trajectory and geographical variations in sentiment throughout this timeframe. The authors conducted an exhaustive study of tweets adorned with hashtags related to climate change, using the Valence Aware Dictionary and Sentiment Reasoner (VADER) as a tool to assign sentiment scores and determine the polarity of tweets. Concurrently, it was traced the geographical dispersion of these tweets and their evolution over the duration of the study. The findings unveiled noticeable shifts in sentiment aligning with major global events. For instance, the United Nations’ endorsement of the Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 stimulated a rise in positive sentiment toward climate discourse, while the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic from 2019 to 2021 triggered a significant fall in sentiment scores. The study also detected an ascending trend of positive discourse in the United States and Europe, with Central Africa sustaining the highest average annual sentiment score. On the other hand, the sentiment in New Zealand and India was extraordinarily volatile, exhibiting dramatic changes from one year to the next. In contrast, Australia and New Zealand consistently registered the lowest sentiment averages. Overall, our findings highlight a complex mosaic of sentiment pertaining to climate change discourse across diverse global regions.

Social Science Computer Review, 2024

Academic publishing gender gap has been surprisingly under covered across all disciplines and ove... more Academic publishing gender gap has been surprisingly under covered across all disciplines and over a longer timeframe. Our study fills this gap, by analyzing how the proportions of women authors change in academic publications over 20 years in all fields from 31,219 journals from 2001 to 2021. Our results indicate that the ratio of female to male authors keeps increasing steadily across disciplines. The increases are field-neutral—in other words, they are not bigger, for example, in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, in spite of multiple initiatives focusing specifically on STEM. The increases are also decelerating in time, which could suggest that the equilibrium of female to male authors may be plateauing. Finally, although the within-field gender gap is decreasing, it actually widened between fields. Thus, our results have major consequences for science policy in the area of the gender gap.

PLOS ONE

While the psychological predictors of antiscience beliefs have been extensively studied, neural u... more While the psychological predictors of antiscience beliefs have been extensively studied, neural underpinnings of the antiscience beliefs have received relatively little interest. The aim of the current study is to investigate whether attitudes towards the scientific issues are reflected in the N400 potential. Thirty-one individuals were asked to judge whether six different issues presented as primes (vaccines, medicines, nuclear energy, solar energy, genetically-modified organisms (GMO), natural farming) are well-described by ten positive and ten negative target words. EEG was recorded during the task. Furthermore, participants were asked to rate their own expertise in each of the six topics. Both positive and negative target words related to GMO elicited larger N400, than targets associated with vaccines and natural farming. The results of the current study show that N400 may be an indicator of the ambiguous attitude toward scientific issues.

Journal of Information Science, 2022

The authors wanted to verify a popular belief that women scholars have been disproportionately af... more The authors wanted to verify a popular belief that women scholars have been disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. We studied the first names of authors of 266,409 articles from 2813 journals in 21 disciplines, and we found no significant differences between men and women in publication patterns between 2021, 2020, and 2019 overall. However, we found significant differences in publication patterns between gender in different disciplines. In addition, in disciplines where the proportion of women authors is higher, there are fewer single-authored articles. In the multi-author articles if the first author is female, there is more gender balance among authors, although there are still fewer women co-authors.

Social Science Computer Review, 2021

The aim of the study was to explore the impact of peer-reviewed psychology journals on Wikipedia ... more The aim of the study was to explore the impact of peer-reviewed psychology journals on Wikipedia articles. We are presenting a rank of academic journals classified as pertaining to psychology, most cited on Wikipedia, as well as a rank of general-themed academic journals that were most frequently referenced in Wikipedia entries related to psychology. We then compare the list to journals that are considered most prestigious according to the SciMago journal rank score. Additionally, we describe the time trajectories of the knowledge transfer from the moment of the publication of an article to its citation in Wikipedia. We propose that the citation rate on Wikipedia, next to the traditional citation index, may be a good indicator of the work’s impact in the field of psychology.

In this research dataset, we investigate the ability of open license knowledge graphs to represen... more In this research dataset, we investigate the ability of open license knowledge graphs to represent COVID-19 information in a fully structured format and to visualize a synthesis of the obtained information using SPARQL. Our work mainly regards the evaluation of this assumption for COVID-19 information in Wikidata. This repository is the source data for "Representing COVID-19 information in collaborative knowledge graphs: a study of Wikidata" by Houcemeddine Turki et al. (2020) and involves two folders: "Docs": This folder includes the source data of several figures and tables of the study Table 3: Languages ranked according to various variables, based on Wikidata queries (as of August 11, 2020). The Medical Wikipedia query yields Wikipedia articles associated with Wikidata items that have a Disease Ontology ID (P699) or are in the tree of any of the following classes: medicine (Q11190), disease (Q12136), medical procedure (Q796194) or medication (Q12140). The Med...

Feminist Media Studies, 2023

Online misogyny is growing at an alarming rate, constituting a violent backlash against feminist ... more Online misogyny is growing at an alarming rate, constituting a violent backlash against feminist activism for gender equality. In our paper, we analyze misogynistic discourses on Twitter generated by #MGTOW (men going their own way) using Thick Big Data. This mixed research method involved a quantitative analysis of 167,582 tweets with #MGTOW and #feminism, followed by a qualitative study of 1,000 tweets of both hashtags. Our study reveals that despite the official narrative of MGTOW as a separatist community of men “going their own way,” #MGTOW’s central goal is in fact the fight against gender equality. The quantitative and qualitative analysis of the language, sentiment, tone, referred sources, and comparisons between #MGTOW and #feminism show that #MGTOW does not simply voice a separatist approach towards women but promotes violence against women and feminism. While feminist tweets are more oriented toward the creation of common identity by referring to shared values and having an internal focus, MGTOW tweets express opposition to “others” and emphasize an “us vs. them” mentality. Our study also shows that online misogyny is something larger than its common definition as a violent anti-women expression in digital environments. It is a defense of a patriarchal system that allows men to claim gender, race, and other kinds of privileges to which they feel entitled.

Feminist Studies, 2023

This study explores gender bias in AI-generated images of professionals, focusing on the visual r... more This study explores gender bias in AI-generated images of professionals, focusing on the visual representation of male and female professionals in law, medicine, engineering, and scientific research. Using a sample of 99 images from nine popular text-to-image generators, we conducted a survey of 120 respondents who assessed the perceived gender of the images. Our findings reveal a significant gender bias, with men represented in 76% of the images and women in only 8%. This bias persists across all four professions and varies between different AI image generators. The results highlight the potential of AI to perpetuate and reinforce gender inequalities, suggesting the need for more intersectional and inclusive approaches in AI design and research. It further underscores the necessity of diversifying the design process and redistributing power in decision-making procedures to challenge existing biases in AI. Our study emphasizes the need for further action to address gender bias in AI-generated images and highlights the importance of adopting a more intersectional and inclusive approach in future research, considering factors such as race, class, and ability. This commentary aims to raise awareness of the current issues with AI-text to image generators and encourages the development of more inclusive and equitable AI technologies.

medRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory), Nov 11, 2021

Background: Achieving vaccine-derived herd immunity depends on public acceptance of vaccination, ... more Background: Achieving vaccine-derived herd immunity depends on public acceptance of vaccination, which in turn relies on people's understanding of its risks and benefits. The fundamental objective of public health messaging on vaccines is therefore the clear and concise communication of often complex information, and increasingly the countering of misinformation. The primary outlet shaping societal understanding is the mainstream online news media. There was widespread media coverage of the multiple vaccines that were rapidly developed in response to COVID-19. We studied vaccine coverage on the front pages of mainstream online news, using text-mining analysis to quantify the amount of information and sentiment polarization of vaccine coverage delivered to readers. Methods: We analyzed 28 million articles from 172 major news sources, across 11 countries between July 2015 and April 2021. We employed keyword-based frequency analysis to estimate the proportion of coverage given to vaccines in our dataset. We performed topic detection using BERTopic and Named Entity Recognition to identify the leading subjects and actors mentioned in the context of vaccines. We used the Vader Python module to perform sentiment polarization quantification of all our English-language articles. Results: We find that the proportion of headlines mentioning vaccines on the front pages of international major news sites increased from 0.1% to 3.8% with the outbreak of COVID-19. The absolute number of negatively polarized articles increased from a total of 6,698 before the COVID-19 outbreak 2015-2019 compared to 28,552 in 2020-2021. Overall, however, before the COVID-19 pandemic, vaccine coverage was slightly negatively polarized (57% negative) whereas with the outbreak, the coverage was primarily positively polarized (38% negative). Conclusions: Because of COVID-19, vaccines have risen from a marginal topic to a widely discussed topic on the front pages of major news outlets. Despite a perceived rise in .

Journal of Organizational Change Management, Feb 16, 2010

Purpose-The purpose of this paper is to present the results of a qualitative study of software en... more Purpose-The purpose of this paper is to present the results of a qualitative study of software engineers' playful behaviors at work. Design/methodology/approach-The interviewed software engineers come from two European and three American companies. The research is based on ethnographical data, gathered in two longitudinal studies 2005-2008. The methods used in the study include open-ended unstructured interviews, participant observations, stories collection, and shadowings. Findings-It is found that the currently dominant theory of normative control explaining software engineers workplace diminishes leisure and entertainment attributes of knowledge work. Fun at workplace is discovered to be an important, if not crucial, element of everyday programmers' job. Originality/value-The study contributes to the literature by replying to the call for more research on high-tech organizational practices, and on non-job related behaviors at workplace. It reveals playful performance as a constituent for knowledge work and may contribute towards a better understanding of the role played by fun and playful behavior in creative problem-solving and inventing.

Marketing i Rynek, Mar 20, 2022

Journal of Business Research, Sep 1, 2020

Abstract In this tutorial, we show how to scrape and collect online data, perform sentiment analy... more Abstract In this tutorial, we show how to scrape and collect online data, perform sentiment analysis, social network analysis, tribe finding, and Wikidata cross-checks, all without using a single line of programming code. In a step-by-step example, we use self-collected data to perform several analyses of the glass ceiling. Our tutorial can serve as a standalone introduction to data science for qualitative researchers and business researchers, who have avoided learning to program. It should also be useful for experienced data scientists who want to learn about the tools that will allow them to collect and analyze data more easily and effectively.

Journal of Medical Internet Research, Jan 18, 2019

Background: Wikipedia, the multilingual encyclopedia, was founded in 2001 and is the world's larg... more Background: Wikipedia, the multilingual encyclopedia, was founded in 2001 and is the world's largest and most visited online general reference website. It is widely used by health care professionals and students. The inclusion of journal articles in Wikipedia is of scholarly interest, but the time taken for a journal article to be included in Wikipedia, from the moment of its publication to its incorporation into Wikipedia, is unclear. Objective: We aimed to determine the ranking of the most cited journals by their representation in the English-language medical pages of Wikipedia. In addition, we evaluated the number of days between publication of journal articles and their citation in Wikipedia medical pages, treating this measure as a proxy for the information-diffusion rate. Methods: We retrieved the dates when articles were included in Wikipedia and the date of journal publication from Crossref by using an application programming interface. Results: From 11,325 Wikipedia medical articles, we identified citations to 137,889 journal articles from over 15,000 journals. There was a large spike in the number of journal articles published in or after 2002 that were cited by Wikipedia. The higher the importance of a Wikipedia article, the higher was the mean number of journal citations it contained (top article, 48.13 [SD 33.67]; lowest article, 6.44 [SD 9.33]). However, the importance of the Wikipedia article did not affect the speed of reference addition. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews was the most cited journal by Wikipedia, followed by The New England Journal of Medicine and The Lancet. The multidisciplinary journals Nature, Science, and the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences were among the top 10 journals with the highest Wikipedia medical article citations. For the top biomedical journal papers cited in Wikipedia's medical pages in 2016-2017, it took about 90 days (3 months) for the citation to be used in Wikipedia. Conclusions: We found evidence of "recentism," which refers to preferential citation of recently published journal articles in Wikipedia. Traditional high-impact medical and multidisciplinary journals were extensively cited by Wikipedia, suggesting that Wikipedia medical articles have robust underpinnings. In keeping with the Wikipedia policy of citing reviews/secondary sources in preference to primary sources, the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews was the most referenced journal.

Cultural Studies <=> Critical Methodologies, Dec 23, 2013

Higher education around the world is currently undergoing a neo-liberal administrative takeover. ... more Higher education around the world is currently undergoing a neo-liberal administrative takeover. The drive to reduce costs and increased bureaucratization do not serve any other purpose than increasing the power of the universities' administration. The reasons for allowing this situation to happen are related to scholars' inertia and subscribing to a belief that academia can and should be impractical. As a result, the emerging corporate university, McDonaldized model relies increasingly on contingent and deskilled faculty, effectively eliminating the traditional academic freedoms. We conclude with suggestions for possible courses of action to make a constructive counter-movement to the radical changes taking place. We propose that we can begin addressing the predicaments of higher education through rediscovering our role in the society, by re-conceptualizing the disciplinary boundaries of academic fields, by forcing the de-bunkerization of academic career and work, and by starting up multidisciplinary learning communities at universities. We argue that collective action is needed immediately, if any positive change is possible at all before more of higher education is more deeply degraded.

Książka omawia zastosowania i oceny metody Action Research w doradztwie strategicznym. Dzięki nie... more Książka omawia zastosowania i oceny metody Action Research w doradztwie strategicznym. Dzięki niej Czytelnik powinien zrozumieć, w jaki sposób stosować metodologię Action Research w doradztwie strategicznym, aby rozwiązać praktyczne problemy firmy i dokonać gruntownej zmiany organizacji oraz stworzyć warunki do uczenia się organizacji. Od połowy lat 90. XX wieku metoda Action Research przeżywa prawdziwy boom w zachodniej praktyce konsultingu dzięki dostrzeżeniu wielu możliwości jej wykorzystania, szczególnie przy rozwiązywaniu problemów organizacyjnych i branżowych. Pomimo to metoda ta ma nadal relatywnie małe zastosowanie w polskiej praktyce, a badania Action Research w zarządzaniu są rzadko spotykane. Wynika to z ich długotrwałego i ryzykownego procesu aplikacji, przy jednoczesnym coraz większym oczekiwaniu przez organizacje szybkich efektów. Mimo uznania jej użyteczności przy doradztwie strategicznym nie jest to metoda powszechnie wykorzystywana przez wielkie korporacje konsultingowe, które przede wszystkim stosują standardowe narzędzia wymagające znacznie mniejszego zaangażowania i dostosowywania. Action Research pozostaje raczej domeną firm małych, niezależnych bądź afiliowanych przy uniwersytetach. Dlatego niniejsza książka, wskazująca praktyczne zastosowanie tej metody wraz z efektami, przede wszystkim natury niematerialnej, rozwija teorię, a zarazem jest praktyczna.

Nature Communications Earth & Environment, 2025

Journal of Computational Social Science, 2025

IEEE Access, 2024

Scientific Reports, 2024

Discover Sustainability, 2024

Social Science Computer Review, 2024

PLOS ONE

Journal of Information Science, 2022

Social Science Computer Review, 2021

Feminist Media Studies, 2023

Feminist Studies, 2023

medRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory), Nov 11, 2021

Journal of Organizational Change Management, Feb 16, 2010

Marketing i Rynek, Mar 20, 2022

Journal of Business Research, Sep 1, 2020

Journal of Medical Internet Research, Jan 18, 2019

Cultural Studies <=> Critical Methodologies, Dec 23, 2013

This book provides a thorough review of tested qualitative methods often used in organization stu... more This book provides a thorough review of tested qualitative methods often used in organization studies, and outlines the challenges and essential requirements of designing a qualitative research project. The methods examined include case studies, observation, interviewing and the repertory grid technique. By highlighting certain key ‘rules’ for carrying out qualitative research and describing issues that should be avoided, this second volume of Qualitative Methodologies in Organization Studies is essential reading for academics and researchers who wish to understand the current state of qualitative data gathering within organization studies. Those exploring organization studies will find this two-volume collection extremely valuable as it contains robust contributions from highly-skilled authors who are actively researching in this field.

Fragment książki "Socjologia internetu". Jemielniak, Dariusz (2019) Socjologia internetu, Warsz... more Fragment książki "Socjologia internetu".

Jemielniak, Dariusz (2019) Socjologia internetu, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar

With an emphasis on peer–produced content and collaboration, Wikipedia exemplifies a departure fr... more With an emphasis on peer–produced content and collaboration, Wikipedia exemplifies a departure from traditional management and organizational models. This iconic "project" has been variously characterized as a hive mind and an information revolution, attracting millions of new users even as it has been denigrated as anarchic and plagued by misinformation. Have Wikipedia's structure and inner workings promoted its astonishing growth and enduring public relevance?

In Common Knowledge?, Dariusz Jemielniak draws on his academic expertise and years of active participation within the Wikipedia community to take readers inside the site, illuminating how it functions and deconstructing its distinctive organization. Against a backdrop of misconceptions about its governance, authenticity, and accessibility, Jemielniak delivers the first ethnography of Wikipedia, revealing that it is not entirely at the mercy of the public: instead, it balances open access and power with a unique bureaucracy that takes a page from traditional organizational forms. Along the way, Jemielniak incorporates fascinating cases that highlight the tug of war among the participants as they forge ahead in this pioneering environment.

This critical ethnographic study of knowledge workers and knowledge-intensive organization workpl... more This critical ethnographic study of knowledge workers and knowledge-intensive organization workplaces focuses on the issues of timing and schedules, the perception of formality and trust and distrust in software development as well as motivation and occupational identity among software engineers.

The book is a cross-cultural, comparative study of American and European high-tech workplaces that addresses the issues currently of interest to both Academia and to practice and provides a rare international comparison of organizations from both sides of the Atlantic. Its conclusions shed new light on the problems typical for software projects. The book specifically focuses on, and gives voice to, the perspectives of knowledge workers rather than managers and will thus be useful to not only scholars and human resource managers from software companies, but also to high-tech professionals.

Scholars and professionals in organization studies, management, HRM, innovation and knowledge management will find this book engaging and enlightening.

Książka omawia zastosowania i oceny metody Action Research w doradztwie strategicznym. Dzięki nie... more Książka omawia zastosowania i oceny metody Action Research w doradztwie strategicznym. Dzięki niej Czytelnik powinien zrozumieć, w jaki sposób stosować metodologię Action Research w doradztwie strategicznym, aby rozwiązać praktyczne problemy firmy i dokonać gruntownej zmiany organizacji oraz stworzyć warunki do uczenia się organizacji.
Od połowy lat 90. XX wieku metoda Action Research przeżywa prawdziwy boom w zachodniej praktyce konsultingu dzięki dostrzeżeniu wielu możliwości jej wykorzystania, szczególnie przy rozwiązywaniu problemów organizacyjnych i branżowych. Pomimo to metoda ta ma nadal relatywnie małe zastosowanie w polskiej praktyce, a badania Action Research w zarządzaniu są rzadko spotykane. Wynika to z ich długotrwałego i ryzykownego procesu aplikacji, przy jednoczesnym coraz większym oczekiwaniu przez organizacje szybkich efektów. Mimo uznania jej użyteczności przy doradztwie strategicznym nie jest to metoda powszechnie wykorzystywana przez wielkie korporacje konsultingowe, które przede wszystkim stosują standardowe narzędzia wymagające znacznie mniejszego zaangażowania i dostosowywania.
Action Research pozostaje raczej domeną firm małych, niezależnych bądź afiliowanych przy uniwersytetach. Dlatego niniejsza książka, wskazująca praktyczne zastosowanie tej metody wraz z efektami, przede wszystkim natury niematerialnej, rozwija teorię, a zarazem jest praktyczna.