Gary Potter | Lancaster University (original) (raw)

Books by Gary Potter

Biological Conservation , 2023

The outbreak of COVID-19 has highlighted the pressing need to prevent zoonotic diseases, resultin... more The outbreak of COVID-19 has highlighted the pressing need to prevent zoonotic diseases, resulting in a surge of interest and research on wildlife legislation and policies. These discussions cover many aspects of wildlife governance, such as wildlife farming, hunting and consumption. However, the legal concept of "wildlife" has received insufficient attention, raising the question of what it entails in a legal context. This study reveals significant differences in species classification, language clarity, and human-wildlife relationships between China and the UK through conducting a comparative analysis of the legal definitions and scope of "wildlife" in these two countries. By contributing to the growing body of literature on wildlife conservation, this study provides insights into the legal definitions and scope of "wildlife" in different countries, and underscores the significance of clarifying the context and scope of legally defined "wildlife" terms in shaping public policy and discourse in wildlife governance. Additionally, it emphasises the importance of legal clarity and harmonisation in wildlife definitions for improved conservation efforts at both domestic and international levels. Finally, this study concludes by stressing the importance of the human-nature relationship in shaping wildlife definitions and classifications, and highlighting the need for conservation practitioners to be attentive to legal details related to wildlife governance in future research and practical efforts to achieve protection.

50 Dark Destinations: A criminological analysis of contemporary tourism

Trophy hunting involves the killing of animals to keep and display body parts as trophies. Huntin... more Trophy hunting involves the killing of animals to keep and display body parts as trophies. Hunting is legal in many countries around the world, but big game hunting is at its biggest in sub-Saharan Africa, which accounts for seven of the top ten countries that export trophy items (Born Free, 2019). Tourists, predominantly from the US and Europe, pay substantial fees to shoot indigenous wildlife. Often portrayed somewhat romantically as a battle of wits between man (and participants are predominantly, although by no means exclusively, men) and beast, hunting is seen as an exciting and dangerous wilderness adventure. In reality, while hunting can involve tracking animals on foot and sleeping in tents, hunters are well-equipped, well-protected and well-looked after. Costing hundreds to thousands of dollars per day, hunting safaris are a high-end luxury form of tourism. ‘Canned’ hunting, where animals are bred in captivity and released into enclosed areas to be shot, takes hunting even further away from any pretence of a fair chase or a reversion to some natural state of predator versus prey.

The term ‘drug use’ covers a wide range of experiences, and drug users are found across all segme... more The term ‘drug use’ covers a wide range of experiences, and drug users are found across all segments of society. For most people who use drugs, the consumption of psychoactive substances is only a small part of their lives. But for a minority of ‘problematic’ users, it becomes a central aspect of their daily lives and a defining characteristic of who they are. The label ‘drug user’ does not distinguish across types, but has a tendency to carry negative connotations. This can have important impacts on how drug users are seen – and interacted with – by society (e.g., through stigmatisation and alienation), by the state (e.g., through criminalisation and medicalisation), and by themselves (e.g., through identity formation). Just as drug use itself is a hugely varied and subjective experience, so is the experience of being labelled a drug user.
Of course, drug users are only one set of individual actors who make up the drugs landscape. Responses to drug use are also shaped by personal identities and experiences of individual actors – drug policy, for example, is ultimately applied by individual law enforcement officers and treatment professionals. The importance of asking ‘who?’ in our efforts to understand drug issues extends not just to exploring the variety of individual experiences and identities of users, but also of the individual
characteristics of those who interact with them.
This addition to the series of books produced by the European Society for Social Drug Research (ESSD) explores the subjectivity behind the label ‘drug user’. It is concerned with who people who use drugs are and how their identities are formed, as well as how they are perceived and responded to by a range of different actors. Our contributions draw on empirical work with drug users from across the ‘recreational’ to ‘problematic’ spectrum, police officers, and treatment professionals from across Europe. Diverse thought the chapters are in their empirical focus, they address common themes of stigma and normalisation to provide significant insights into the role of identity in shaping drug experiences – and the importance of asking ‘who?’ as drug researchers.

Illegal drug use is common across Europe—and around the world. Drug use is accompanied by drug ma... more Illegal drug use is common across Europe—and around the world. Drug use is accompanied by drug markets, which emerge and evolve as an inevitable response to demand. Drug policies are enacted in response to these, whether aimed at eliminating use and supply, or minimising the harms related to them. These are the core components of the ‘drug problem’.
While the drug problem is a global phenomenon, the way its components manifest themselves vary widely. The prevalence of use of different drugs changes over time and across different places. The characteristics of drug cultures and drug markets differ by geographical, social and cultural context. Drug policies, while broadly governed by global drug treaties, are shaped by local and national politics and designed to respond to local and national concerns.
Drug use, drug markets and drug policies are, ultimately, located in specific geographical, cultural and temporal contexts. As the drug problem varies across place, space and time, so understanding drug issues must take account of these dimensions. In this book, we bring together contributors from across Europe, each focussing on different aspects of the drug problem in different countries and different contexts. Each chapter contributes important knowledge about specific aspects and examples of the drug problem. Together, they provide even greater insights into the relationships between drug use, markets and policy, and their situation in place, space and time.

In the 21st century, environmental harm is an ever-present reality of our globalised world. Over ... more In the 21st century, environmental harm is an ever-present reality of our globalised world. Over the last 20 years, criminologists, working alongside a range of other disciplines from the social and physical sciences, have made great strides in their understanding of how different institutions in society, and criminal justice systems in particular – respond – or fail to respond – to the harm imposed on ecosystems and their human and non-human components. Such research has crystallised into the rapidly evolving field of green criminology. This pioneering volume, with contributions from leading experts along with younger scholars, represents the state of the art in criminologists’ pursuit of understanding in the environmental sphere while at the same time challenging academics, lawmakers and policy developers to explore new directions in the study of environmental harm.

Evidence as a metaphor for knowledge characterised by the positivist traits of objectivity, valid... more Evidence as a metaphor for knowledge characterised by the positivist traits of objectivity, validity and value-free truths is a contested commodity within the social science community, not least in the field of drugs research. The politics of knowledge production – including how research is produced, funded and interpreted through a lens clouded by values and ideology – is an ongoing topic for debate and enquiry. Nonetheless, the demand for objective data to inform evidence-based policy and practice, and to demonstrate the effectiveness of ‘what works’ and what is value for money, continues to grow exponentially. Research funders increasingly prioritise studies that have a demonstrable input into or impact on policy.
The contributors to this book cast a critical gaze on the concept of evidence. They challenge the positioning of evidence as the neutral product of an apolitical process and demonstrate, through case studies and policy analysis, the social construction of evidence by those who make and seek to influence policy. The authors question the epistemological and ontological basis of different forms of evidence; the selective accommodation of evidence and voices within dominant policy discourses; and the popular conception of evidence-based policy as a benchmark of good policymaking. Together, the various chapters provide a compelling insight into the complex contexts in which social drugs research evidence is produced, constructed, (mis)used and (mis)interpreted across Europe.

The is book critically examines both theory and practice around conservation crimes. It engages w... more The is book critically examines both theory and practice around conservation crimes. It engages with the full complexity of environmental crimes and different responses to them, including poaching, conservation as a response to wildlife crime, forest degradation, environmental activism, and the application of scientific and situational crime prevention techniques as preventative tools to deal with green crime.
Through the contributions from experts from both the social and ecological sciences, the book deals with theoretical and practical considerations that impact on the effectiveness of contemporary environmental criminal justice. It discusses the social construction of green crimes and the varied ways in which poaching and other conservation crimes are perceived, operate and are ideologically driven, as well as practical issues in environmental criminal justice. With contributions based in varied ideological perspectives and drawn from a range of academic disciplines, this volume provides a platform for scholars to debate new ideas about environmental law enforcement, policy, punishment, and crime prevention and detection.

Despite over 40 years of the war on drugs, we still have a drug ‘problem’: drug use, drug markets... more Despite over 40 years of the war on drugs, we still have a drug ‘problem’: drug use, drug markets and attempts to control these are constant features of modern societies.
Patterns of drug use are changing, as are the ways in which society responds. In itself, this is not particularly noteworthy: trends in the consumption of psychoactive substances have always accompanied broader cultural shifts. However, in many ways we are experiencing change that is unprecedented in the history of drug policy. A number of new developments are occurring simultaneously: technological advances enable new ways of producing and distributing both old and new drugs, and facilitate the dissemination of information that influences drug-taking behaviours. Those who seek to respond (e.g. policy makers, treatment professionals, researchers) also harness scientific advances, and develop innovative new approaches of their own. The rate of change is such that it is difficult to keep up, or to predict the consequences.
This book examines change and continuity in the European drug scene. Eight original research papers explore their own specific topics, features on the broader drug landscape. But individually and (especially) together, these studies provide broader insights relevant to many other aspects of the contemporary drug scene in Europe and beyond.

Contents:

Gary R. Potter: Change and continuity in the European drug landscape: an introduction

Aileen O’Gorman: Neighbourhood effects: the influence of time, space and structures on drug consumption trends and practices

Levente Móró: Harm reduction of novel psychoactive substance use

Katarzyna Dąbrowska & Michał Bujalski: A liquid phenomenon? Images of new psychoactive substances in Polish print media

Caroline Chatwin: New psychoactive substances: new European policy landscapes

Alastair Roy: Looking beneath the surface of recovery: Analysing the emergence of recovery oriented treatment policies

Alfred Springer: The road to anhedonia

Sharon Sznitman, Nehama Lewis & Danielle Taubman: Analysing Twitter as an opportunity to understand substance use

Julie Tieberghien: Interviewing ‘elites’ in examining the science-policy nexus: some methodological reflections

For the majority of its history, the cultivation of cannabis did not stand out, at least compared... more For the majority of its history, the cultivation of cannabis did not stand out, at least compared to the cultivation of other illegal plants. Cannabis plantations, like coca bush or opium poppy plantations, were typically large in size, grown by local farmers in a handful of developing (producing) countries, processed and then exported to industrial (consuming) nations. While cocaine and heroin are still produced in a handful of developing countries, cannabis cultivation is increasingly universal. From Europe to the Americas and Oceania, import substitution in cannabis markets has been noticed in almost every developed country around the world, with a notable aversion for discrimination. Geographical, technological, cultural and economic factors help to explain why (indoor and outdoor) domestic cultivation is well established, and why the nature and extent of cultivation varies so dramatically across the western, developed nations.
As we start the second decade of the 21st century, the new cannabis industry continues to fascinate both casual and academic observers of the drug scene. Researchers around the world have become increasingly interested in the phenomenon, aiming to describe, and potentially explain, the rapid switch from importation to domestic production in their own countries.

In bringing together some of the world's leading experts on cannabis cultivation this book contains sixteen chapters that take an interdisciplinary look at global trends in cannabis cultivation. It will serve as an exemplar for wider discussions of key theories and concepts relating to the spread not just of cannabis cultivation, but also of illegal markets more generally, the actors that operate within these markets and the policies and practices that are employed in response to developments within these markets.

Weed, Need and Greed explores the pheonomenon of domestic cannabis cultivation and examines its i... more Weed, Need and Greed explores the pheonomenon of domestic cannabis cultivation and examines its impact on the wider cannabis market. Drawing predominantly on 10 years of ethnographic research with cannabis growers, the result is a description of cannabis cultivation, and cannabis cultivators, in the industrialised world.
The book explores how cannabis is grown. Most cannabis in Western countries is grown indoors with increasingly hi-tech cultivation methods being utilised. The methods employed by individual growers will depend on their opportunities, their intentions and, importantly, any ideological position which may influence their choice.
It also explores who is involved in cannabis growing. Growers come from a wide range of backgrounds, but many share common 'ideological' traits that are rooted in an affiliation to a wider cannabis culture. A typology of cannabis growers i offered based on motivation and ideology. The key point here is that a large number of cannabis growers seek no financial reward whatsoever for their involvement in what is essentially an act of drug trafficking. Other growers do make money, but are equally motivated by non-financial 'drivers'. Still others are mostly or entirely driven by financial considerations. These growers often display the same hallmarks as drug-trafficking oufits. Consumer concerns can be seen to influence the market with smaller independent 'social' and 'social/commercial' growers offering an ideological - ethical, even - alternative to larger scale organised crime outfits.
Finally, explanations for the recent surges in domestic cannabis cultivation seen all over the Western world are offered along with predictions for the future of domestic production not just of cannabis but other drugs as well.

Papers by Gary Potter

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2023

Illegal drug markets are often assumed to be violent and predatory due to the absence of third-pa... more Illegal drug markets are often assumed to be violent and predatory due to the absence of third-party enforcement. While cannabis markets are generally considered to be relatively more peaceful, there has been little investigation of the levels of conflict and victimization among small-scale cannabis growers, particularly under different cannabis policy and enforcement settings. This paper explores prevalence and predictors of conflict and social control among small-scale cannabis growers. Methods: The data were obtained from an online convenience survey of small-scale cannabis growers from 13 countries (

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2024

Background: While the supply of cannabis is commonly assumed to be dominated by criminal gangs, a... more Background: While the supply of cannabis is commonly assumed to be dominated by criminal gangs, a sizable share of the domestic cannabis supply is provided by small-scale growers. This article examines the nature and scope of small-scale growers' distribution practices, with a particular focus on crosscountry differences and variations between different types of grower-distributors, i.e., "non-suppliers", "exclusive social suppliers", "sharers and sellers" and "exclusive sellers". Methods: Based on a large convenience web survey sample of predominantly small-scale cannabis growers from 18 countries, this article draws on data from two subsamples. The first subsample includes past-year growers in all 18 countries who answered questions regarding their market participation (n = 8,812). The second subsample includes past-year growers in 13 countries, who answered additional questions about their supply practices (n = 2,296). Results: The majority of the cannabis growers engaged in distribution of surplus products, making them in effect "grower-distributors". Importantly, many did so as a secondary consequence of growing, and social supply (e.g., sharing and gifting) is much more common than selling. While growers who both shared and sold ("sharers and sellers"), and especially those who only sold ("exclusive sellers"), grew a higher number of plants and were most likely to grow due to a wish to sell for profits, the majority of these are best described as small-scale sellers. That is, the profit motive for growing was often secondary to non-financial motives and most sold to a limited number of persons in their close social network. Conclusion: We discuss the implications of the findings on the structural process of import-substitution in low-end cannabis markets, including a growing normalization of cannabis supply.

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2024

Qualitative Research in Criminology: Cutting-Edge Methods, 2022

Criminology is still coming to terms with the opportunities-and challengesrelated to the use of p... more Criminology is still coming to terms with the opportunities-and challengesrelated to the use of photo-ethnographic methods in researching active offenders. Photography provides a range of methodological opportunities, including as a tool for building rapport, for data collection and analysis, and as a component of the dissemination of research findings. However, it also poses significant ethical challenges, particularly in relation to active offenders, vulnerable populations, and cultural sensitivities. While the literature exploring the benefits of photographic methods in criminology has expanded significantly in recent years, reflection on ethical issues and other limitations is less well developed. This chapter explores the use of photography as an ethnographic tool in active offender research in the context of our experiences of conducting research into illegal hunting in Uganda. It outlines the ways in which taking photos contributed to data collection and analysis and the generation of substantive research findings. It also reflects on the ethical considerations of photography as a method in this context, including the risk of harm to research participants and the (vulnerable) populations they represent. Our conclusion is that while the use of photography in ethnographic research of active offender populations should be embraced by researchers, caution should be employed in how photos are used-particularly as a component of publication.

Drugs and Alcohol Today, 2021

Purpose-This paper aims to consider the nature of cannabis-related harms under the UK's Misuse of... more Purpose-This paper aims to consider the nature of cannabis-related harms under the UK's Misuse of Drugs Act (MDA). Written for the specific context of this four-paper special section on 50 years of the MDA, it argues that the MDA may cause more harm than it prevents. Design/methodology/approach-An opinion piece offering a structured overview of cannabis-related harms under prohibition. It summarises existing evidence of the ways in which prohibition may exacerbate existingand create newharms related to the production, distribution, use and control of cannabis. Findings-The paper argues that prohibition of cannabis under the MDA may cause more harm than it prevents. Originality/value-It has long been argued that the MDA does not accurately or fairly reflect the harms of the substances it prohibits, and much existing research points to different ways in which drug prohibition can itself be harmful. The originality of this paper lies in bringing together these arguments and developing a framework for analysing the contribution of prohibition to drug-related harm.

The Routledge Handbook of Post-Prohibition Cannabis Research, 2021

Officially, since November 2018, medical cannabis in the UK has been legal if authorised by a spe... more Officially, since November 2018, medical cannabis in the UK has been legal if authorised by a specialist physician. In reality, while access to CBD products is widespread (and does not need authorisation by a doctor), legal access to preparations containing THC2 remains highly constrained.
However, demand for medical cannabis products is high, and many thousands of people do use cannabis medicinally but remain dependent on illegal sources. While the 2018 change in the law initially offered hope to those using medical cannabis illegally, the practical impact of the changes thus far has been infinitesimal. Those for whom medical cannabis may be beneficial continue to face a stark choice: either suffer the symptoms that could be treated were cannabis legally available or
resort to committing criminal offences in pursuit of relief from their conditions.
In this chapter we discuss access to medical cannabis in the UK. We start with an overview of the demand for medical cannabis in the UK and how this demand has, under prohibition, been met by relying on criminal activity. We then outline the legal situation regarding medical cannabis in the UK following the changes of November 2018. Finally, we speculate on future developments, asking whether the 2018 changes really are the beginning of a new era of legal access to medical cannabis or merely a political sop to media and public pressure with little genuine impact for those who could benefit from medical cannabis.

A companion to state power, liberties & rights, 2017

Green criminology is a branch of criminology that focuses on environmental crime, although a wide... more Green criminology is a branch of criminology that focuses on environmental crime, although a wider conceptualisation would include the analysis of environmental harms from a criminological perspective, the application of criminological thought to environmental issues, or the relationship between the natural environment and criminal justice. Within the heading 'environmental crime', two major categories are distinguishable: primary and secondary 'green' crimes (Carrabine et al., 2009).

MONITORING DRUG USE IN THE DIGITAL AGE: STUDIES IN WEB SURVEYS. EMCDDA Insights, 2022

Worldwide, patterns of cannabis cultivation have shifted from production for international market... more Worldwide, patterns of cannabis cultivation have shifted from production for international markets concentrated in certain developing countries, to decentralised production in almost every country. In response to the synchronous expansion of cannabis cultivation in many industrialised countries, cross-national research is needed to develop a better understanding of the characteristics of those involved in cannabis cultivation. This need for further research forms the context within which the Global Cannabis Cultivation Research Consortium (GCCRC) was created and the International Cannabis Cultivation Questionnaire (ICCQ) was developed. The ICCQ was developed to bridge the gap in international comparative research, as early empirical studies on cannabis cultivation in the global north focused on large-scale, commercially oriented growers, or examined small samples. This paper presents some of the key findings from the first wave of the ICCQ, the methodological lessons learned from implementing online surveys targeted at drug producers and the policy implications of the survey results. As this study shows, the survey has generated important substantive findings about cannabis cultivation, along with policy insights and methodological lessons, that would likely have been unattainable through other methods.

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2015

Aims: To provide an overview of: demographic characteristics; experiences with growing cannabis; ... more Aims: To provide an overview of: demographic characteristics; experiences with growing cannabis; methods and scale of growing operations; reasons for growing; personal use of cannabis and other drugs; participation in cannabis and other drug markets; contacts with the criminal justice system for respondents to an online survey about cannabis cultivation drawn from eleven countries (N=6530). Important similarities and differences between the national samples recruited will be discussed. Method: This paper utilizes data from the online web survey of predominantly 'small-scale' cannabis cultivators in eleven countries conducted by the Global Cannabis Cultivation Research Consortium (GCCRC). Here we focus primarily on descriptive statistics to highlight key similarities and differences across the different national samples. Findings: Overall there was a great deal of similarity across countries in terms of: demographic characteristics; experiences with growing cannabis; methods and scale of growing operations; reasons for growing; use of cannabis and other drugs; participation in cannabis and other drug markets, and; contacts with the criminal justice system. In particular, we can recognise that a clear majority of those small-scale cannabis cultivators who responded to our survey are primarily motivated for reasons other than making money from cannabis supply and have minimal involvement in drug dealing or other criminal activities. These growers generally come from 'normal' rather than 'deviant' backgrounds. Some differences do exist between the samples drawn from different countries suggesting that local factors (political, geographical, cultural etc.) may have some influence on how small-scale cultivators operate, although differences in recruitment strategies in different countries may also account for some differences observed. This paper reports on the preliminary general findings of the (semi-)standardised International Cannabis Cultivation Questionnaire (ICCQ); (Decorte et al. 2012) developed by the Global Cannabis Cultivation Research Consortium (GCCRC) and conducted in eleven countries to date. We begin with

Biological Conservation , 2023

50 Dark Destinations: A criminological analysis of contemporary tourism

Contents:

Gary R. Potter: Change and continuity in the European drug landscape: an introduction

Aileen O’Gorman: Neighbourhood effects: the influence of time, space and structures on drug consumption trends and practices

Levente Móró: Harm reduction of novel psychoactive substance use

Katarzyna Dąbrowska & Michał Bujalski: A liquid phenomenon? Images of new psychoactive substances in Polish print media

Caroline Chatwin: New psychoactive substances: new European policy landscapes

Alastair Roy: Looking beneath the surface of recovery: Analysing the emergence of recovery oriented treatment policies

Alfred Springer: The road to anhedonia

Sharon Sznitman, Nehama Lewis & Danielle Taubman: Analysing Twitter as an opportunity to understand substance use

Julie Tieberghien: Interviewing ‘elites’ in examining the science-policy nexus: some methodological reflections

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2023

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2024

Qualitative Research in Criminology: Cutting-Edge Methods, 2022

Drugs and Alcohol Today, 2021

The Routledge Handbook of Post-Prohibition Cannabis Research, 2021

A companion to state power, liberties & rights, 2017

MONITORING DRUG USE IN THE DIGITAL AGE: STUDIES IN WEB SURVEYS. EMCDDA Insights, 2022

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2015

Child and Family Law Quarterly, Mar 27, 2005

This article considers the imposition by the courts of a parental duty to consult on matters of i... more This article considers the imposition by the courts of a parental duty to consult on matters of importance in a child’s life. The results of a survey of 2,300 respondents, who were asked to respond to a number of scenarios, are analysed and discussed. The survey provides some interesting reflections on the views of the general public as to who should be ‘in control’ over decision-making for children.

Journal of Qualitative Criminal Justice & Criminology, 2014

Sage Encyclopedia of Drug Policy, 2011

There is undoubtedly a strong relationship between drugs and crime. Drugs are heavily implicated ... more There is undoubtedly a strong relationship between drugs and crime. Drugs are heavily implicated in a wide variety and large volume of criminal activity, although the nature of the relationship is somewhat complicated. The links between drugs and criminal behavior are manifold, and a number of theories exist that attempt to explain different aspects of the relationship. Evidence suggests that those who use drugs are generally more involved in (other) criminal activity than the non-drug using population; that those who are involved in (other) crime are more likely to use drugs than the general population, and; that drug markets often overlap with, and even necessitate, other types of criminal behavior. The relationship between drugs and crime varies, with different drugs (legal and illegal) being more closely related to different types of criminal activity.

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2015

Background: The production and consumption of cannabis for the treatment of medical conditions is... more Background: The production and consumption of cannabis for the treatment of medical conditions is of increasing importance internationally; however, research on different aspects of the phenomenon is still scarce. In this article, we report findings from a cross-cultural study of small-scale cannabis cultivation for medical purposes. This kind of comparative study has not been done previously.
Methods: The data were gathered with a help of web surveys conducted by the Global Cannabis Cultivation Research Consortium (GCCRC) in Australia, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany and the UK (N = 5313). In the analysis we compare reports of medical motives, for what conditions cannabis is used, whether users have diagnoses for these conditions and whether the use of cannabis been recommended as a treatment of those conditions by a medical doctor. Descriptive statistics are used to show the main commonalities and noteworthy disparities across different countries.
Results: Findings from countries were quite similar, even though several national differences in details were found. Growing cannabis for medical purposes was widespread. The majority of medical growers reported cultivating cannabis for serious conditions. Most of them did have a formal diagnosis. One fifth had got a recommendation from their doctor, but in most cases cannabis use was self-medication which was not discussed with their doctors.
Conclusion: There is a wider demand for licit access for medical cannabis than currently available in these countries. Ideologically, medical growers can be seen distancing themselves from both the legal and illicit drug markets. From a harm reduction perspective, it is worrying that, in the context of present health and control policies in these countries, many medical growers are using cannabis to treat serious medical conditions without proper medical advice and doctor’s guidance.

Journal of Organizational Ethnography, 2020

The question of “taking sides” has received a lot of attention within qualitative criminology. Mu... more The question of “taking sides” has received a lot of attention within qualitative criminology. Much of this has focused on the moral-philosophical or value-laden aspects of taking sides, following Becker’s 1967 essay ‘whose side are we on’. However, the question of taking sides also has methodological implications, especially for qualitative researchers who wish to study multiple sides of a criminological problem, such as the perspectives of offenders and law enforcement around a
particular illegal activity.
This paper considers some of the practical, ethical and analytical challenges of studying illegal markets from opposing sides – the market participants’ perspective on one side, and law enforcement on the other. It outlines the advantages of researching both sides: the improved validity and reliability that comes with exploring and trying to reconcile different perspectives and the potential this has for developing theory and policy. It then explores the challenges researchers may face when trying to engage with opposing sides in qualitative fieldwork. It pays particular attention to some practical and ethical questions researchers may face in this situation: who to
research first, whether to be open about researching both sides, and whether researchers should ever share information they have received from one side with their participants from the other side.
We do not offer absolute answers to these questions. Rather, we aim to outline some of the factors researchers may need to consider when juggling qualitative research involving participants on both sides of the law.

Pleasure, pain and profit. European perspectives on drugs, 2010

This chapter explores the profit, pleasure and pain associated with the increased occurrence of c... more This chapter explores the profit, pleasure and pain associated with the increased occurrence of cannabis cultivation in the western world. ‘Import substitution’ in the cannabis market is largely explained from an economic perspective. However, explanations for the activities of individual cannabis growers depend on a more complex interplay of both economic and non-economic considerations.
Fundamental to a market perspective is the idea that growers are motivated by
profit. While most are, the literature also recognises various non-financial drivers.
Cannabis may be grown for personal pleasure, medical use, or to make a political or cultural statement. For some growers, profit is the main factor. For others profit is of no concern. For most growers there is a mixture of financial and non-financial drivers.
‘Pain’ in cannabis cultivation comes in the form of the consequences of ‘failure’:
loss of crop, legal sanctions or social repercussions. ‘Pain’ is also apparent in trying to manage the various challenges facing the grower. It seems from the literature that cannabis growers are, in the main, rational actors. Growers minimise risks as much as possible, weighing up remaining costs against the benefits they are seeking.
While many growers can be seen to be rational economic actors akin to other drug dealers (Cornish & Clarke, 1986), it is important to note the role of nonfinancial drivers influencing individual growers. Policies and theories based on the assumption that this particular criminal activity is purely economic will fail to account for the wider phenomenon of cannabis cultivation in industrialised nations.

Cannabis in Europe: Dynamics in Perception, Policy and Markets , 2008

Cannabis cultivation in the United Kingdom has, seemingly, been on the increase. From the ‘tradit... more Cannabis cultivation in the United Kingdom has, seemingly, been on the increase. From the ‘traditional’ situation where most cannabis on the British market would have been imported we now have a situation where sources suggest that over 60% of the cannabis consumed in the UK is grown here. At the same time we have seen ongoing debate surrounding UK cannabis laws. In January 2004 cannabis was ‘downgraded’ from a Class B to a Class C drug. Recently these calls to reverse this liberalisation have been coming to a head. There are many reasons behind this call. Some of these relate to the proliferation of domestic cultivation. This chapter aims to describe the apparent shift from an import-led market to one drawing largely on domestic production and to explore the reasons behind this shift. It is argued that the change in policy has only been a minor influence in this respect.

Environmental Crime and its Victims: Perspectives within Green Criminology, 2014

The argument is that an ecological perspective can make important contributions to criminological... more The argument is that an ecological perspective can make important contributions to criminological theory: broadly speaking, as we increasingly recognise that sustained environmental harm often creates social harm, and that environmental victimisation often contributes to criminality, it follows that criminology should recognise environmental harm not just as crime, but as an important contributory factor in the genesis of crime. If we accept the prediction that environmental problems – and therefore related social problems – are likely to persist, and probably accelerate, as we move further into the 21st century, we should recognise that the links between this and crime are also likely to accelerate. This leads to the final aim of the current chapter: to make the argument that a green criminology (that is, a criminology that is informed by an ecological as well as a social science) deserves to be seen as having something useful to say about the problem of crime as a whole, rather than remaining a niche area confined to focusing on the sub-category of environmental crime.

Greening Criminology in the 21st Century: contemporary debates and future directions in the study of environmental harm , 2017

The term "Green Criminology" was first introduced by Lynch in 1990 although the history of crimin... more The term "Green Criminology" was first introduced by Lynch in 1990 although the history of criminologists concerning themselves with specific environmental and animal related crimes goes back further than this. For example Pecar (1981) put forward an even earlier statement about new environmentally damaging forms of criminality in Slovenia and the role of criminology and sciences related to this (Eman, Mesko and Fields 2009: 584) but with no English‐language translation Pecar’s article made no international impact. Furthermore, although Lynch set out the scope and aims of a green criminology in a way that can still stand as a ‘manifesto’ statement, its place of publication meant it did not reach a wide audience at the time (although once ‘rediscovered’ it proved highly influential). Potter (2012) has reviewed arguments that might be put in order to ‘justify’ a green criminology and this is a useful exercise. But in an important sense, a green criminology is justified because it was inevitable and necessary. It reflected scientific interests and political challenges of the moment, carried forward the momentum of critical non‐conformist criminology, and offered a point of contact and convergence. So, no particular contribution was required as the ‘first’ or ‘unique’ catalyst for the development of a green or eco‐criminology, for this was already underway in many places, for similar reasons, with teachers, researchers and writers expressing parallel concerns and proposing a similar project for criminology (see, for example, Clifford 1998; Edwards et al. 1996; Halsey and White 1998; Koser Wilson 1999; Lynch and Stretesky 2001, 2003; Pecar 1981; South, 1998; Sollund 2008; Walters 2004, 2006; White 1998)

International Journal of Drug Policy, 2015

Global patterns of cannabis cultivation have followed a fascinating development, from highly conc... more Global patterns of cannabis cultivation have followed a fascinating development, from highly concentrated production in certain developing countries to decentralized production in almost every country around the world (UNODC, 2014). Historically, the spread of cannabis cultivation across the globe reflected the industrial utility of hemp; the widespread use of cannabis as a recreational drug did not appear until much later (Abel, 1980; Booth, 2003). It is with the emergence of modern patterns of cannabis use in the developed world that we have seen major changes in patterns of cannabis pro-duction. As demand for cannabis increased globally, fuelled by the developments of the “counter-culture” of the 1960s and 1970s, so cultivation in the developing world began to take on new dimensions. Firstly, cultivation increased in many traditional growing regions as exportation to the consumer markets of the industrialized world became an attractive option. Secondly, in response to global demand, countries such as Morocco and Mexico became large-scale producers of cannabis and major suppliers to, respectively, European and American consumers, despite not having the traditions of cannabis cultivation found in Asia, the Middle-East or the Caribbean (Gooberman, 1974; UNODC, 2003; UNODC, 2005;Moreno, 1997).A third phase in the evolution of cannabis production has been the increase in cultivation across the industrialised world. From Europe to the Americas and Oceania, import substitution in the cannabis market has been noticed in almost every developed country (UNODC, 2014; Decorte, Potter, & Bouchard, 2011). Although some small-scale cultivation probably has almost as long a history as cannabis use in the west, widespread small-scale cultivation and larger-scale commercial production only begins to appear towards the end of the twentieth century. In some countries the levels of domestic cultivation have reached the stage where self-sufficiency in cannabis markets has largely been attained (Leggett, 2006; Bouchard, 2008; Jansen, 2002).