Robert Fulford | University of Leeds (original) (raw)

Papers by Robert Fulford

Musicae Scientiae, 2021

This study investigated the perception and learning of relative pitch using vibrotactile stimuli ... more This study investigated the perception and learning of relative pitch using vibrotactile stimuli by musicians with and without a hearing impairment. Notes from C3 to B4 were presented to the fingertip and forefoot. Pre-and post-training tests in which 420 pairs of notes were presented randomly were carried out without any feedback to participants. After the pre-training test, 16 short training sessions were carried out over six weeks with 72 pairs of notes per session and participants told whether their answers were correct. For amateur and professional musicians with normal hearing and professional musicians with a severe or profound hearing loss, larger pitch intervals were easier to identify correctly than smaller intervals. Musicians with normal hearing had a high success rate for relative pitch discrimination as shown by preand post-training tests, and when using the fingertips, there was no significant difference between amateur and professional musicians. After training, median scores on the tests in which stimuli were presented to the fingertip and forefoot were >70% for intervals of 3-12 semitones. Training sessions reduced the variability in the responses of amateur and professional musicians with normal hearing and improved their overall ability. There was no significant difference between the relative pitch discrimination abilities between one and 11 semitones, as shown by the pre-training test, of professional musicians with and without a severe/profound hearing loss. These findings indicate that there is potential for vibration to be used to facilitate group musical performance and music education in schools for the deaf.

International Journal of Audiology, 2020

Objective: Two studies explored hearing-aid user and audiologist experiences of hearing-aid use a... more Objective: Two studies explored hearing-aid user and audiologist experiences of hearing-aid use and fitting for music in the UK. Design and sample: One-hundred-seventy-six hearing-aid users (age range: 21–93 years; mean: 60.56 years) answered a 4-item questionnaire on music listening difficulties and discussions about music in clinic. 99 audiologists (age range: 22–71 years; mean: 39.18 years) answered a 36-item questionnaire on the frequency and type of discussions, training received, and strategies for optimizing hearing aids for music. Closed and open-ended questions were included. Results: Sixty seven percent of hearing-aid users reported some degree of difficulty listening to music with hearing aids, and 58% had never discussed music in clinic. 50% of audiologists surveyed asked 1 in 5 (or fewer) patients about music and 67% had never received music-specific training. Audiologist training on music was significantly associated with confidence in providing advice, confidence in programming hearing aids for music, and programming hearing aids for music for a greater number of patients. Conclusions: Hearing-aid users’ and audiologists’ experiences of music remain mixed. In the absence of formalised training in optimizing hearing aids for music, there is a need for systematic research relating fitting strategies to clinical outcomes and the development of guidelines for audiologist training.

Psychology of Music, 2018

Musicians’ hearing has received increased attention due to the rising prevalence of hearing loss ... more Musicians’ hearing has received increased attention due to the rising prevalence of hearing loss among general and musical populations. This paper reports results of a national survey exploring professional musicians’ awareness of, and perceptions surrounding, their hearing health, and associated help-seeking behavior including attitudes towards hearing protection. Professional musicians (N = 693) took part, the majority being orchestral or instrumental musicians. Forty percent of the sample had experienced hearing loss or other hearing issues and many attributed hearing problems to their musical careers. Fifty percent of the musicians were worried about noise at work; however, less than a third had taken a hearing test. Reasons for having a test included subsidized tests and experiencing symptoms of hearing loss or tinnitus, while reasons for not having a test included a lack of awareness about options. Data revealed an on-going tension between a concern to protect hearing and the perceived negative outcomes of wearing protection during musical performance, and highlighted the need for more in-depth research into the experiences of musicians in high-risk instrumental groups (e.g., amplified/band musicians, brass, percussion). Providing advice to musicians about the risks of noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) prior to experiencing symptoms of hearing loss or tinnitus will support improved protection behavior.

Evidence suggests that musicians may be more susceptible to developing a hearing impairment due t... more Evidence suggests that musicians may be more susceptible to developing a hearing impairment due to increased exposure to loud sounds over the lifespan. Hearing impairments can affect musical performance behaviours, yet research suggests they do not significantly affect ensemble synchrony unless the hearing loss is severe or profound. This study investigated the effect of reduced auditory feedback on ensemble synchrony, looking behaviour and playing level. Four violinists, with self-reported normal hearing, formed two duos in acoustically-isolated rooms separated by a glass window. Each player received feedback from their own and their co-performer’s playing attenuated by 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40 dB. Video recordings of their looking behaviours were coded and signed asynchronies were identified in the audio files. The strongest effects found were bi-directional changes to playing levels as a result of auditory feedback levels, which increased when a player’s own feedback was reduced and reduced when co-performer feedback was attenuated. Violinists’ looking behaviour was found to increase when co-performer feedback was attenuated by 20 dB or more relative to their own, such that they glanced more frequently and looked for longer towards their partners. There were no effects of auditory attenuation on ensemble synchrony, even with 40 dB attenuation. The results indicate that “self-to-other” sound level ratios are more likely to prompt compensatory musical performance behaviours than an individual’s hearing ability.

Presentation of music as vibration to the skin has the potential to facilitate interaction betwee... more Presentation of music as vibration to the skin has the potential to facilitate interaction between musicians with hearing impairments and other musicians during group performance. Vibrotactile thresholds have been determined to assess the potential for vibrotactile presentation of music to the glabrous skin of the fingertip, forefoot and heel. No significant differences were found between the thresholds for sinusoids representing notes between C1 and C6 when presented to the fingertip of participants with normal hearing and with a severe or profound hearing loss. For participants with normal hearing, thresholds for notes between C1 and C6 showed the characteristic U-shape curve for the fingertip, but not for the forefoot and heel. Compared to the fingertip, the forefoot had lower thresholds between C1 and C3, and the heel had lower thresholds between C1 and G2; this is attributed to spatial summation from the Pacinian receptors over the larger contactor area used for the forefoot and heel. Participants with normal hearing assessed the perception of high-frequency vibration using 1s sinusoids presented to the fingertip and were found to be more aware of transient vibration at the beginning and/or end of notes between G4 and C6 when stimuli were presented 10dB above threshold, rather than at threshold. An average of 94% of these participants reported feeling continuous vibration between G4 and G5 with stimuli presented 10dB above threshold. Based on the experimental findings and consideration of health effects relating to vibration exposure, a suitable range of notes for vibrotactile presentation of music is identified as being from C1 to G5. This is more limited than for human hearing but the fundamental frequencies of the human voice, and the notes played by many instruments, lie within it. However, the dynamic range might require compression to avoid the negative effects of amplitude on pitch perception.

Musicians such as Ludwig van Beethoven and more recently Evelyn Glennie show us that even a profo... more Musicians such as Ludwig van Beethoven and more recently Evelyn Glennie show us that even a profound level of deafness is no barrier to the creation or performance of music. While there is a growing literature on the perception of music using cochlear implant technology, there exists comparatively less empirical research about the amplification of music using hearing aid (HA) technology. As part of a recent AHRC-funded project exploring the perception of music using vibrations, an interview study was conducted by the first author to explore issues relating to performing and perceiving music in the presence of a hearing impairment. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with twelve musicians who spoke about their musical background and training, history of hearing loss, and experience of using HAs. Transcripts were coded and analysed using thematic analysis. Overall, satisfaction with digital HAs was low, with pitch and timbre distortion often reported to compromise music listening experiences. Some musicians sought enhanced HAs while some dispensed with them altogether. Preferences for digital or analogue technology were found to relate to musicians’ history and level of hearing loss and evidence of dynamic auditory attending was found. The results suggest that musicians who use HA technology draw on a range on strategies to compensate for impaired auditory feedback. Advanced signal processing algorithms within digital HAs have necessarily prioritised speech perception with potentially negative effects on their ability to amplify musical acoustic input. Further research is needed to understand how HA technology and fitting may be improved for music listening.

Hearing impairments affect not only the auditory perception of music but also performers’ behavio... more Hearing impairments affect not only the auditory perception of
music but also performers’ behaviours while playing together.
This study explored the effects of systematically attenuating
auditory feedback on ensemble synchrony, spontaneous looking behaviours and overall dynamic levels when playing. Four violinists without hearing impairments formed two duos and played in two acoustically-isolated rooms separated by a glass window. Each violinist was able to hear their own playing and their co-performer’s playing with different combinations of
auditory attenuation (0dB, -10dB, -20dB, -30dB and -40dB).
Video-recordings of the violinists’ looking behaviours were coded and the sound pressure levels of the violinist’s playing were measured. Signed asynchronies were extracted from waveform peaks observed in the wav files. The results showed that the violinists' looking behaviour was not affected by attenuating the auditory feedback from their own playing but was affected by attenuating that from their co-performer’s playing: the more the attenuation, the more often they glanced and the longer they gazed at their co-performers. The more the audio feedback from the violinists’ own playing was attenuated, the louder they played; conversely, the more that from their co-performer’s playing was attenuated, the more quietly they played. There were no effects on ensemble synchrony. The results suggest that it is not the level of auditory feedback per se, but rather the ratio of perceived loudness between the player and their co-performers, which affects communicative looking behaviours and loudness of playing.

Psychology of Music

This article reports an observational study exploring the effects of naturally-occurring hearing ... more This article reports an observational study exploring the effects of naturally-occurring hearing impairments on musicians’ behaviour and communication with each other while rehearsing and performing. Two groups of three pianists and three flautists, one in each group with normal hearing, and the others moderately or profoundly deaf, formed duos working on two pieces of music: a movement from a Bach flute sonata and a new composition. The profoundly deaf musicians spent significantly more time looking at and talking to their co performers than moderately deaf and hearing players. In response, hearing players looked at and talked more to their profoundly deaf partners. Profoundly deaf players also spent significantly less time on complete runs of the pieces from start to finish, without stops. While these findings have implications for the teaching and practice of musicians with and without hearing impairments, we suggest that social factors are as, if not more, important to the success of collaborative musical performance.

Empirical Musicology Review

This research concerns the use and understanding of vibrotactile information to facilitate group ... more This research concerns the use and understanding of vibrotactile information to facilitate group performance for musicians with and without a hearing impairment. The aim of this study was to investigate the perception and learning of basic relative pitch (RP) in the vibrotactile mode via the fingertip. Seventeen participants with normal hearing undertook a pitch discrimination experiment over a 16-session training period with a full test before and after the training sessions. The results show a high success rate for basic RP with and without training. For intervals ranging from
one semitone to one octave below to one octave above Middle C, there was a significant difference for individual intervals between 9 and 12 semitones when comparing pre-training and post-training test results. An appreciable and significant improvement was found for the whole group of 12 intervals comparing both pre- and post-training tests.

Musicians with hearing impairments develop complex strategies for interactive performance relying... more Musicians with hearing impairments develop complex strategies for interactive performance relying on dynamic, or sometimes reduced, auditory attending and increased visual attending in music-making situations. Research suggests that there may be a relationship between auditory feedback and the use of visual cues by musicians with hearing impairments. To improve understanding of these processes, the present study explored the use of auditory and visual cues by examining the movement and looking behaviours of performing musicians. Four violinists with normal hearing were observed playing together as two duos in four experimental conditions involving the attenuation of auditory and visual information in which participants wore earplugs and/or faced away from their partner. Dependent measures were the duration and frequency of physical movements and looking behaviour as coded in Noldus Observer XT9. Analysis showed that auditory attenuation of the level used in this study had no effect on the violinists’ movement or looking behaviour. The ability to see a co-performer did not affect movement behaviour but, where there was the possibility of eye contact, the amount of both movement and looking behaviour increased. Idiosyncratic, inter-player differences were far larger than intra-player differences resulting from the manipulation of experimental conditions, highlighting the uniqueness of individual playing styles. The results confirm that physical movement in music serves many purposes: it is used expressively by the player but can be consciously modified for the benefit of the co-performer.

The journey from playful musical exploration in childhood to an adult identity as a skilled music... more The journey from playful musical exploration in childhood to an adult identity as a skilled musician is likely to be problematic for people with hearing impairments. Although a number of subjective accounts have been published, there is a lack of empirical research in the area. In this study, twelve musicians with hearing impairments were interviewed about their musical background, hearing loss and experiences of interactive music making. A thematic network analysis was performed on the verbatim transcripts. Musical families were shown to facilitate positive, early, influential experiences helping individuals to develop musical selfefficacy. These themes were found to operate independently of the challenges posed by a hearing impairment and in spite of negative music-making experiences. Dynamic listening styles were identified, ranging from full reliance on hearing to discriminate and even non-auditory attending. The development of listening styles was found to be crucial in negotiating problems in auditory perception caused by physiological changes in hearing level and the distorting effects of hearing aids.

Book chapters by Robert Fulford

Sound, Music and the Moving-Thinking Body, Nov 2013

Developing the Musician, Sep 2013

Conference Report by Robert Fulford

PhD Thesis by Robert Fulford

How can we perceive music if we cannot hear it properly? The achievements of deaf musicians sugge... more How can we perceive music if we cannot hear it properly? The achievements of deaf musicians suggest it is possible not only to perceive music, but to perform with other musicians. Yet very little research exists to explain how this is possible. This thesis ddresses this problem and explores the premise that vibrations felt on the skin may facilitate interactive music making.

An initial interview study found that, while vibrations are sometimes perceived, it is predominantly the use of visual and physical cues that are relied upon in group performance to help stay in time and in tune with other players. The findings informed the design of two observation studies exploring the effects of i) artificial attenuation of auditory information and ii) natural deafness on performance behaviours. It was shown that profound congenital deafness affected the players’ movements and their gazes/glances towards each other while mild or moderate levels of attenuation or deafness did not. Nonetheless, all players, regardless of hearing level, reciprocated the behaviours of co-performers suggesting the influence of social factors benefitting verbal and non-verbal communication between players.

Finally, a series of three psychophysical experiments was designed to explore the perception of pitch on the skin using vibrations. The first study found that vibrotactile detection thresholds were not affected by hearing impairments. The second established that the relative pitches of intervals larger than a major 6th were easy to discriminate, but this was not possible for semitones. The third showed that tones an octave apart could be memorised and identified accurately, but were confused when less than a perfect 4th apart.

The thesis concludes by evaluating the potential of vibrotactile technology to facilitate interactive performance for musicians with hearing impairments. By considering the psychophysical, behavioural and qualitative data together, it is suggested that signal processing strategies in vibrotactile technology should take social, cognitive and perceptual factors into account.

Talks by Robert Fulford

Musicae Scientiae, 2021

International Journal of Audiology, 2020

Psychology of Music, 2018

Psychology of Music

Empirical Musicology Review

There is very little empirical research investigating the effect of hearing impairment on interac... more There is very little empirical research investigating the effect of hearing impairment on interactive music making. Verbal accounts suggest that many strategies are used to facilitate ensemble synchrony including the use of visual cues.

The study asked what strategies are used during rehearsal and performance by musicians with different levels of, and no hearing impairment.

Analyses were made of the rehearsal and performance of two works (a Bach flute sonata and a new piece) by a series of duos formed by three pianists and three flautists. In each group one player had normal hearing, and the others moderate or profound deafness.

The profoundly deaf musicians talked more than hearing musicians in rehearsal, referring to structural and temporal as well as stylistic aspects of interpretation. They also glanced more often and gazed for longer at their partners. The hearing musicians adapted their natural looking styles so as to look more and for longer at their profoundly deaf partners. Movement styles while playing were idiosyncratic but fulfilled a communicative rather than self-regulatory function. The musicians who were moderately and profoundly deaf produced more spontaneous gestures while talking about musical interpretation.

The findings will be discussed in relation to emerging research on music and shape.

Musicians with hearing impairments develop complex strategies for interactive performance relying... more Musicians with hearing impairments develop complex strategies for
interactive performance relying on dynamic, or sometimes reduced,
auditory attending and increased visual attending in music-making
situations. Research suggests that there may be a relationship between
auditory feedback and the use of visual cues by musicians with
hearing impairments. To improve understanding of these processes,
the present study explored the use of auditory and visual cues by
examining the movement and looking behaviours of performing
musicians. Four violinists with normal hearing were observed playing
together as two duos in four experimental conditions involving the
attenuation of auditory and visual information in which participants
wore earplugs and/or faced away from their partner. Dependent
measures were the duration and frequency of physical movements and
looking behaviour as coded in Noldus Observer XT9. Analysis
showed that auditory attenuation of the level used in this study had no
effect on the violinists’ movement or looking behaviour. The ability to
see a co-performer did not affect movement behaviour but, where
there was the possibility of eye contact, the amount of both movement
and looking behaviour increased. Idiosyncratic, inter-player
differences were far larger than intra-player differences resulting from
the manipulation of experimental conditions, highlighting the
uniqueness of individual playing styles. The results confirm that
physical movement in music serves many purposes: it is used
expressively by the player but can be consciously modified for the
benefit of the co-performer.

Practising music with a hearing impairment poses challenges for the musician, a significant facto... more Practising music with a hearing impairment poses challenges for the musician, a significant factor being the effect of hearing aid technology on the auditory perception of music. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 participants who spoke of their musical background and current activity, history of hearing loss, and experience of using hearing aids. Preference for digital or analogue hearing aids was shown to relate to the participants’ history and level of hearing loss. However, satisfaction with digital hearing aids was low overall, with a combination of pitch and timbre distortion and usability issues shown to be detrimental to the experience and auditory perception of music. Participants’ responses were polarised, either seeking enhanced hearing aid technology or dispensing with technology altogether and thus raising questions about the comparative reliance on listening itself among musicians with hearing impairments. Hearing aid distortions in music perception force the performing musician to make continual accuracy judgements. In breaking the feedback loop between playing and listening, musicians with hearing impairments rely on a range of other strategies that enable them to achieve technically accurate and musical performances. Strategies include the use of visual and physical cues, social feedback and the awareness of vibrotactile feedback.